The practice of vipassana, too, is to be
attributed to kamupadana of a person who seeks permanent deliverance from evils of
existence. Ordinary people have to contemplate to be free from the four upadanas while the
Ariyas have to contemplate to overcome kamupadana. Thus, vipassana practice stands for the
conquest of upadana. According to Visuddhimagga and another commentary, viz.,
Sammohavinodani, avijja is indirectly the cause of good acts in that one has to do good
for liberation from avijja and it is also said that bhavana or vipassana practice is one
of the good acts in the sensual world which one has to do for such liberation.
The question then arises as to whether vipassana practice can lead to
rebirth. The commentaries on Anguttara Nikaya and Patthana point to such a possibility.
According to the commentary on Anguttara Nikaya, the first three right views lead to good
rebirth, the last two right views, viz., the view that is born of fruition on the path
(phala-sammaditthi) and the view that results from vipassana practice tend to liberate the
yogi from life-cycle (samsara). It says, however, on the authority of a learned thera
(Culabhaya) that the yogi is subject to rebirth for seven times before he attains
Arahatship. According to Patthana, contemplation of appamana (conditions of existence)
leads to rebirth in sensual sphere, and the commentary defines appamana-cetana as maturity
(gotrabhu cetana). Hence, it is reasonable to assume that vipassana practice can give rise
to rebirth before Arahatship is won.
But vipassana can ensure freedom from samsara through insight into
anicca, dukkha and anatta of all sense-objects - an insight that keeps off the defilement
of craving for them. This non-arising of craving means non-arising of kamma and rebirth.
Thus, vipassana insight helps to offset kamma and its samsaric consequences by
tadangapahana (overcoming by opposite).
Moreover, through inductive generalization, the yogi realizes the
anicca, dukkha and anatta of other phenomena that he has contemplated. Thus, he keeps off
the defilements and their kammic potentials by repression (vikkhambhana pahana). Then,
there follows the Ariyan insight on the path that helps to root out the defilements. The
emergence of this insight may be likened to the signing of an official letter by the head
of a government department. The act of the officer-in-charge is, in fact, to give the
finishing touch to the lot of work done by his subordinates. We cannot ignore the major
contribution of vipassana practice in the pursuit of spiritual enlightenment any more than
we can ignore the work of office staff or the cumulative effect of repeated use of a saw
that makes it finally possible for the woodcutter to exterminate the tree once and
forever. As the sub-commentary on Visuddhimagga says:
"Transcendent insight on the path helps to stamp out, root and
branch only the defilements which the yogi has done his utmost to overcome through mundane
vipassana insight."
Those who do not contemplate, labour under the illusion of bliss and
ego-entity. The illusion leads to craving, kammic efforts, rebirth and all the sufferings
that are inherent in life-cycle.
Life-Cycle And Three Time Dimensions
The doctrine of Paticcasamuppada describes twelve causes and effects
viz., (1) ignorance, (2) kamma formations, (3) consciousness, (4) mind and body, (5) six
senses, (6) sense-contact, (7) feeling, (8) craving, (9) clinging, (10) becoming (bhava),
(11) birth (jati), (12) old age and death.
According to the doctrine, ignorance and craving are the two main
sources of suffering. There are two life-cycles, the anterior life-cycle and the posterior
life-cycle. The anterior life-cycle begins with ignorance as its main source and ends with
feeling, while the posterior life-cycle begins with craving and ends with death. In the
former life-cycle, ignorance (avijja) and kamma formations (sankhara) in the past life
leads to rebirth, while in the latter life-cycle, craving (tanha) and clinging (upadana)
cause rebirth in future. The two life-cycles show how a man's lifetimes are linked with
one another through cause and effect.
Again, if the doctrine of dependent origination is to be described on
time-scale, avijja and sankhara are two links in the past life, the links from vinnana to
kammabhava concern the present life, while birth, old age and death are the links that
future has in store for us. Thus, the doctrine refers to three time dimensions.
Five Causes In The Past
The doctrine describes the past cause only in terms of avijja and
sankhara but in point of fact avijja is invariably followed by tanha and upadana and
sankhara too always lead to kammabhava. So Patisambhidamagga comments on the doctrine as
follows.
"Avijja is ignorance that dominates us while doing a kammic deed.
Sankhara means collection and exertion of effort. Tanha is the craving for the results of
an action in the present life and hereafter. Upadana is obsession with action and its
result. Kammabhava is volition. These five factors in the past constitute the cause of
present rebirth."
Thus, we have to consider all these five links viz., avijja, tanha,
upadana, sankhara and kammabhava if we are to describe the past cause fully. Of these,
avijja, tanha and upadana are labelled kilesavatta (cycle or round of defilements).
Sankhara and kammabhava are called kammavatta (cycle of actions). The commentary makes a
distinction between sankhara and kammabhava, describing the prior effort, planning, etc.,
preparatory to an act as sankhara and the volition at the moment of doing the act as
kammabhava. Thus, seeking money, buying things, etc., prior to an act of dana comprise
sankhara while the state of consciousness at the time of offering is kammabhava.
Preliminary activities leading to an act of murder are sankhara while cetana or volition
at the time of killing is kammabhava.
Distinction Between Sankhara And Kammabhava
The other kind of distinction between sankhara and kammabhava is based
on impulse-moments. It is said that an act of murder or alms-giving involves seven
impulse-moments. The first six impulse-moments are called sankhara while the last is
termed kammabhava.
The third way of making the distinction is to describe volition
(cetana) as kammabhava and other mental states associated with volition as sankhara.
The last method of classification is helpful when we speak of good
deeds in rupa and arupa spheres. All the three methods apply in the case of good or bad
acts in sensual world, but the first method is most illuminating for those who are not
well informed.
Alternatively, Visuddhimagga attributes rebirth to flash-backs, visions
and hallucinations that hold a dying person's attention at the last moment of his life. So
according to this commentary, kammabhava may be defined as the volition (cetana) that
motivated his good or bad acts in the past and the sankhara as the mental state
conditioned by his death-bed experiences.
Present Effect Due To Past Cause
Thus, owing to the rounds of defilements and kamma comprising the five
causes in the past, there arises rebirth-consciousness together with mind-body, six bases,
impressions and feeling. These five effects are collectively called vipaka vatta (round of
effects). Because of their ignorance, common people have the illusion of pleasantness
about every sense-object and mind-object. They develop craving, thereby starting again the
vicious cycle of causes and effects that represent their rounds of suffering.
Consciousness, the six sense bases, etc., arise as the kammic result of
past kammas. It is a matter of cause-and-effect relationship just like all other
phenomena. This leaves no room for ego, God or Prime Mover. The only difference is the
moral law governing this relationship, the nature of feeling, whether pleasant or
unpleasant, being dependent on the good or bad sankhara in the past. In reality there is
no person who has pleasant or unpleasant feeling nor any being who causes him to have such
an experience. Life is only the continuum of consciousness, impression, etc., as
conditioned by five factors, viz., ignorance, craving, etc.
Knowledge For Vipassana Practice
Those who have a smattering of Paticcasamuppada or Abhidhamma say that
it is impossible to practise meditation without a knowledge of these teachings. But, in
fact the yogi who practises under the guidance of a learned teacher need not bother about
higher Buddhist philosophy for he can follow the teacher's instructions if he knows only
that life is a mental and physical process characterized by impermanence, suffering and
insubstantiality. The adequacy of this simple knowledge to meet the intellectual need of
the yogi who is bent on Arahatship is borne out by the Buddha in Culatanha-sankhaya sutta.
There the Lord goes on to talk about vipassana practice. In the sutta, the yogi's
understanding of nama-rupa is termed "abhijanati" which, says the commentary,
means full comprehension and refers to nama-rupa paricchedanana and paccayapariggahanana.
Through contemplation, the yogi knows all phenomena analytically as
anicca, dukkha and anatta (parijanati). Here, the Pali terms refer to sammasananana and
other vipassana insights.
As regards Paticcasamuppada, a knowledge of the conditionality and
cause-effect relationship in life that rules out a being ego or self is sufficient. It is
not necessary to know the twelve links or the twenty main points of the doctrine
thoroughly. If the practice of vipassana presupposes such a comprehensive knowledge, it
would be unthinkable for a man of low intelligence like, say, thera Culapanna. The thera's
memory was so poor that he could not remember a few gathas that he had learnt for four
months. Nevertheless, he attained Arahatship in a few hours when he practised
contemplation as instructed by the Buddha.
Another laywoman, Matikamata by name, attained the third stage
(anagami) on the holy path in advance of some bhikkhus who were her meditation teachers.
She did not know much about Abhidhamma and Paticcasamuppada. There were many other yogis
like this woman and Culapanna thera. So it is possible for a yogi to attain the holy path
if he contemplates even though he may not have thoroughly learnt the higher teachings of
the Buddha.
Not to know the real nature of pleasant or unpleasant feeling is avijja
(ignorance). It is tanha to like a sense-object and it is upadana to have craving for it.
To seek the object of one's desire, to do good or evil for one's happiness or welfare in
the present life or hereafter means sankhara and kammabhava. These five factors are the
present causes and they give rise to rebirth after death. The doctrine of Paticcasamuppada
mentions only three causes, viz., vedana, tanha and upadana but in reality these three
factors imply two other causes, viz., avijja and sankhara since these two are the
mainsprings of tanha and kammabhava respectively. So Patisambhidamagga describes all these
five factors as causes of rebirth in future.
Removing The Present Causes
Every good or evil act means the complete conjunction of these five
present causes and occasions for such a conjunction in a single lifetime may number by
thousands. Under certain circumstances these causes may lead to rebirth after death or two
or three rebirths successively. Every existence is bound up with old age, grief, death,
etc., and if we wish to avoid these sufferings, we will have to remove the present causes.
To this end we should note all physical phenomena, "seeing",
"hearing", etc., at the moment of their arising. With the development of
concentration, we note their instant passing away and become aware of their impermanence,
unsatisfactoriness and unreliability. This awareness helps us to overcome ignorance and
illusion that fuel craving, attachment and kammic effort: we thus keep the five present
causes inoperative and inactive, thereby forestalling rebirth and consequent suffering.
This method of removing the causes is labelled //tadangapahana// -
overcoming some defilements through contemplation. By this method, the yogi attains
//tadanganibbuti// - partial extinction of defilements through contemplation. Later on,
there arises the insight on the Ariyan path which means the extinction of all sankhara and
the realization of Nibbana (//samucchedapahana//).
The defilements and kammas are then done away with, once and forever.
The yogis who attain sotapatti stage overcome the defilements and kammas that lead to the
lower worlds, and those that may cause good rebirth for more than seven lifetimes, the
yogis at the sakadagami stage overcome those that may cause more than two rebirths while
the yogis at the anagami stage remove those that lead to rebirth in sensual worlds.
Finally, the yogi who attains arahatta stage eradicates the remaining defilements and
kamma. In other words, he becomes an Arahat, the Noble one who is worthy of honour because
he is wholly free from defilements.
Arahat's Outlook On Life
The arahat has no illusion about the nature of sense-objects. He is
aware of their unwholesomeness and this means he realizes the truth of dukkha because he
is free from ignorance (avijja). So he has no craving for anything. Inevitably, he has to
fill the biological needs of his physical body such as eating, sleeping, etc., but he
regards them as conditioned (sankhara) dukkha and finds nothing that is pleasant to him.
The question arises as to whether he should long for speedy death to
end such suffering. But the desire for early death or dissolution of the physical body too
is a destructive desire and the Arahat is free from it. So there is an Arahat's saying in
the Theragatha that he has neither the wish to die nor the wish to live.
The Arahat does not wish to live a long life for life means largely the
burden of suffering inherent in khandha. Although the burden of khandha needs constant
care and attention, it is not in the least reliable. To many middle-aged or old people,
life offers little more than frustration, disappointment and bitterness. Living conditions
go from bad to worse, physical health declines and there is nothing but complete
disintegration and death that await us. Yet, because of ignorance and attachment many
people take delight in existence. On the other hand, the Arahat is disillusioned and he
finds life dreary and monotonous. Hence, his distaste for life.
But the Arahat does not prefer death either. For death-wish is an
aggressive instinct which he has also conquered. What he wants is to attain Nibbana, a
longing that is somewhat analogous to that of a worker who wishes to get his daily or
monthly wage.
The worker does not like to face hardship and privations for he has to
work inevitably just to make his living but he does not want to lose his job either. He
wants only money and looks forward to pay-day. Likewise, the Arahat waits for the moment
when he should attain Nibbana without anything left of his body-mind complex. So when they
think of their life-span, the Arahats wonder how long they will have to bear the burden of
nama-rupa khandha. Because of his disillusionment, the Arahat's life-stream is completely
cut off after Nibbana, hence it is called //anupadisesanibbana//.
Not Annihilation But Extinction Of Suffering
Those who believe in ego or soul deprecate Nibbana as eternal death of
a living being. In reality, it is the total extinction of suffering that results from the
non-recurrence of psycho-physical phenomena together with their causes viz., kamma and
defilements. So the Buddha points out the cessation of upadana arising from the complete
cessation of craving, the process of becoming (bhava) ceasing to arise due to cessation of
upadana and so on. With the non-arising of rebirth, there is the complete cessation of old
age, death and other kinds of suffering.
Here, the popular view is that birth, old age and death are evils that
afflict living beings but, in point of fact, these evils characterize only the
psycho-physical process and have nothing to do with a living entity. Since there is no ego
or soul, it makes no sense to speak of the annihilation of a living being with the
cessation of rebirth and suffering.
So those who regard Nibbana as annihilation are not free from the
illusion of ego-entity. To the intelligent Buddhist, Nibbana means only cessation of
suffering. This is evident in the story of bhikkhu Yamaka in the time of the Buddha.
Story Of Yamaka
Yamaka believed that the Arahat was annihilated after his death. He
clung to his view although other bhikkhus pointed out its falsity. Then, Sariputta
summoned him. Questioned by the elder thera, Yamaka admitted that all the five khandhas
are impermanent and suffering, that it would be a mistake to regard them as one's
possession or self. Sariputta told him to see the five khandhas as they really are. He
would then become disillusioned, detached and liberated.
While hearing the sermon, Yamaka attained the sotapanna stage. He was
now free from false beliefs. Sariputta then questioned him again. In response to the
thera's questions, Yamaka said that he did not identify the Arahat with the physical body,
the perception, the feeling, conformations (sankhara) or the consciousness. Nor did he
believe that the Arahat existed elsewhere without the rupa, vedana or any other khandha.
Therefore, since the Arahat or a living entity is not to be found in the five khandhas
even before death, it makes no sense to speak of the Arahat's annihilation after his
parinibbana.
Yamaka confessed his mistaken view. He was now free from it and he knew
what to say about the destiny of the Arahat. If someone were to ask him, "What
happens when the Arahat passes away?", he would answer, "The death of the Arahat
means the complete cessation of suffering inherent in the impermanent five khandhas."
This statement about the Arahat was confirmed by Sariputta. The thera
likened the khandhas to the murderer who poses as a friend and said that identifying the
khandhas with atta is like welcoming the murderer, etc.
Here, the thera Yamaka at first believed that the Arahat was
annihilated after death, that there was nothing left. This belief presupposes the illusion
of ego-entity and so the annihilation view of Nibbana is called ucchedaditthi, the view
that Nibbana means the negation of atta after death. When he realized the truth and
attained sotapanna, Yamaka said that the death of the Arahat means the complete extinction
of suffering inherent in the impermanent five khandhas.
To sum up the way to the cessation of suffering, failure to note
seeing, hearing and other psycho-physical phenomena leads to the arising of avijja, tanha,
upadana, kamma, and sankhara that in turn cause birth, old age and death in future.
Mindfulness of all phenomena forestalls the five present causes viz., avijja, etc., and
the five consequences that involve suffering.
Bhikkhuni Vajira On The Nature Of Khandhas
Moreover, it is the extinction of suffering that is underscored in the
famous saying of bhikkhuni Vajira. While she was sitting under a tree near Jetavana
monastery, Mara appeared and in order to scare and discomfit her, asked her,"Hey,
bhikkhuni! Who created a living being? Where is the creator? How did a living being
originate and how would he come to an end?"
Bhikkhuni Vajira replied, "O, Mara! What do you think is a living
being? Is not your belief in a living being an illusion? What you regard as a living being
is nothing but a heap of sankhara. No being is to be found in this heap, a living being
(sattava) is merely a term for the collection of five khandhas viz., rupa, vedana, etc.,
just as "chariot" is the term for the combination of wheel, axle, etc.; there is
no being but only the group of five khandhas: That cause suffering - in fact, it is only
suffering (dukkha) that arises, exists and ends. There is no arising and extinction of
anything other than dukkha."
Therefore, a living being is to be understood only in the popular
acceptation of the term. It does not exist in the absolute sense; there is only the
psycho-physical process which comprises ignorance, craving, attachment, kamma and kammic
effort as causes and consciousness, body-mind, sense bases, impression and feeling as
effects. These effects in turn become causes that give rise to rebirth and suffering.
Four Layers, Three Links And Twenty Factors
Paticcasamuppada refers to four groups of factors involved in the chain
of causation viz., the first group of causes in the past, the second group of effects in
the present life, the third group of causes in the present and the last group of effects
in the future. The groups are labelled //sangaha// or //sankhepa// in Pali. They may also
be translated as layers.
There are three links for the four layers - the link between the past
and the present involving sankhara as cause and vinnana as effect, the link between the
present effect and present cause with vedana and tanha as cause and effect, and the third
link between present cause and future with bhava as cause and jati (birth) as effect.
Then, there are twenty factors (akara) involved in the psycho-physical
process viz., five causes in the past, five effects in the present, five causes in the
present and five effects in the future.
Three Cycles
Again the doctrine of Paticcasamuppada deals with three cycles or
rounds (vattas) viz., the cycles of defilements, kamma and fruits. The first cycle
comprises ignorance, desire and attachment (upadana), the second (kamma cycle) comprises
kammic effort and kammic existence (bhava), and the third vipaka cycle involves
consciousness, mind-body, sense bases, impression and feeling.
The third vipaka cycle again leads to the cycle of defilement, the
cycle of defilement again gives rise to kamma cycle and so on, each of the three cycles
occurring one after another ceaselessly in a vicious circle. The three cycles form the
samsaric round of suffering. Samsara means continuum of nama-rupa (psycho-physical)
process occurring in terms of cause-effect relationship.
In order to liberate ourselves from the samsaric cycle of suffering, we
do good deeds. We become familiar with the Buddha's teaching about the Four Noble Truths.
We practise contemplation at the moment of seeing, hearing, etc. We realize the ceaseless
arising and dissolution of psycho-physical phenomena. This vipassana insight forestalls
illusion and frees us from craving and attachment that leads to rebirth and suffering.
Visuddhimagga describes the contribution of kamma to the cycle of
defilement. A certain yogi sees how mind-body complex is born of kammic cycle and vipaka
(kammic fruits) cycle. He realizes that there are only kamma and its fruits: As a result
of kamma in the past, there arise nama-rupa in the present life; nama-rupa is the cause of
present kamma; it gives rise to kammic deeds in present life. These kammic deeds lead to
rebirth. In this way there is the arising (becoming) of nama-rupa (being) without
cessation.
Here, the arising or becoming of nama-rupa means the arising of
phenomena from the senses e.g. seeing, hearing, etc. These lead to defilement, kamma, and
rebirth successively. Thus, the nama-rupa process is conditioned by the cycle of kamma and
its fruit. According to Visuddhimagga, this insight-knowledge means paccayapariggahanana
and kankhavitarana visuddhi (Purity of Escape from all Doubt).
Four Aspects Of Paticcasamuppada
There are four aspects of the doctrine of Paticcasamuppada that we
should bear in mind. The first is the individual character of the psycho-physical process
that comprises the three successive existences. Although the doctrine stresses the
conditionality of all phenomena, it is a mistake to believe that avijja, tanha and other
causes concern one person, while vinnana, nama-rupa and other causes concern one person,
and while vinnana, nama-rupa and other effects concern another person for this belief
implies the total extinction of a living being after death, the annihilation - view which
Buddhism rejects. In reality, the nama-rupa process is analogous to, say, the evolution of
a mango tree. The mango seed becomes a seedling, the seedling turns into a young plant and
the plant grows into a tree. Here the seed, the young plant and the tree form a
continuous, unbroken line of cause and effect relationship so that strictly speaking, it
is impossible to distinguish between the tree and the plant.
Likewise, avijja, sankhara, vinnana, etc., occur in unbroken succession
in terms of cause and effect and so it is reasonable to speak of a particular person
involved in the process. It was Devadatta, for example, who committed schism and it is
Devadatta who is now suffering in hell. The merchant Anathapindika did good deeds and it
was he himself who landed in the deva-world after his death.
The False View Of Sati
This identification of the doer of kammic deed with the bearer of its
fruit makes it possible for us to avoid the annihilation-view. On the other hand, some
people believe in the transmigration of a living being as a whole from one life to
another. This mistaken view called sassataditthi (eternity-belief) was held by bhikkhu
Sati in the time of the Buddha.
It was the Jatakas that led bhikkhu Sati to this view. He learnt how
the Buddha identified himself with the leading characters in these birth stories. So he
reasoned thus: the physical body of the bodhisatta disintegrated after his death and there
was nothing of it that passed on to his last existence. It was only the consciousness that
survived physical dissolution and that formed the hard core of the bodhisatta's
personality in each of his existence. The same may be said of every other living being.
Unlike the physical body, consciousness is not subject to disintegration. It passes on
from one body to another and exists forever.
But the Jatakas underscore only the continuity of the cause and effect
relationship in terms or the doer of kamma and the bearer of kammic fruit. They do not
imply the transfer of vinnana or any other attribute intact from one life to another.
Everything passes away but because of the causal connection, we have to assume that the
hero of a Jataka story finally became Prince Siddhattha. So after questioning Sati, the
Buddha says that vinnana is conditioned, that it cannot arise in the absence of its
relevant cause.
The Buddha cites the simile of a fire which is designated according to
its origin. The fire that originates with wood is called wood-fire, that which starts with
grass is called grass-fire and so on. Likewise, consciousness is conditioned by something
and it is labelled according to that which conditions it. Thus, the consciousness that
arises from eye and visual form is called visual consciousness (cakkhu-vinnana), that
which stems from ear and sound is called auditory consciousness (sota-vinnana) and so
forth. In short, the consciousness is specified according to the sense-object and the
sense-organ which together give rise to it. When the cause of a fire changes so does its
designation. A grass-fire becomes a bush-fire when the fire spreads to the bush. In the
same way, consciousness changes its label according to the sense-object and the
sense-organ on which it is dependent. In the case of the same sense-object and the same
sense-organ, too, it is the new consciousness that occurs at every moment in the mental
process. Thus, to realize the truth about mental process is to be free from
annihilation-belief whereas a false view of it leads to eternity-belief.
Distinctive Character Of Each Phenomenon
Another aspect of the doctrine is the distinction between the different
phenomena constituting the chain of causation. Thus avijja is a distinct phenomenon that
conditions sankhara; sankhara is another different phenomenon that leads to rebirth and so
on. To differentiate these phenomena is to realize their cause-and-effect relationship and
this realization makes us free from eternity-belief. It helps us to do away with the
illusion of a permanent, unchanging self that survives death and passes on to another
existence.
In fact the eternity-belief or the annihilation-belief stems from the
fact that people tend to over-emphasize either the connection between the mental states in
two successive lives or the distinction between them. If we unintelligently identify
ourselves with the nama-rupa in the present life and that in the previous life, we will be
inclined to the belief in immortality. On the other hand, if we overstress the dichotomy
of the nama-rupas, we are likely to fall into the trap of annihilation-view. The right
attitude is to recognize the unbroken stream of nama-rupa that flows from one life to
another in terms of cause and effect. This point of view gives us the impression of the
individual character of nama-rupa and, as such, it clarifies the working out of kamma. It
does not, however, imply the transfer of old nama-rupa or ego. It assumes the cessation of
old nama-rupa and the arising of new nama-rupa in the present life on the basis of past
kamma.
This view is crucial in vipassana practice. To the yogi who
contemplates nama-rupa at every moment of their arising, these two aspects of the doctrine
are apparent. He becomes aware of the stream of cause and effect comprising avijja, tanha,
upadana and so forth. He is aware of the continuity, and the uninterrupted flow of
nama-rupa process and, therefore, he rejects the annihilation view completely.
Furthermore, being aware of the new phenomenon that arises whenever he
contemplates, he discriminates between the sense-object and his consciousness.
Contemplation brings to light feeling, craving, clinging, effort, consciousness, etc., as
distinct phases of the mental process. And because he is well aware of the arising of new
phenomena, he frees himself from eternity-belief.
Absence Of Effort (Avyapara)
Another aspect of Paticcasamuppada is the absence of effort (avyapara).
Avijja causes sankhara without striving and sankhara does not strive to create rebirth.
Knowledge of this fact means insight into the non-existence of any agent or being
(karaka-puggala) who hears, sees, etc., and as such it makes us free from ego-belief. But
as Visuddhimagga says, it lends itself to misinterpretation and turns one into a moral
sceptic who accepts determinism and denies moral freedom.
The non-volitional nature of conditioned psycho-physical phenomena is
apparent to the yogi who contemplates their ceaseless arising and dissolution for he
realizes clearly that since nama-rupa is conditioned, his mind and body do not always act
according to his desire.
Relevancy Of Cause To Effect
The last aspect of Paticcasamuppada is the one-to-one correspondence
between cause and effect (evam dhammata). Every cause leads only to the relevant effect;
it has nothing to do with the irrelevant effect. In other words, every cause is the
sufficient and necessary condition for the corresponding effect. This fact leaves no room
for belief in chance or moral impotency (akiriyaditthi) but, as Visuddhimagga says, for
those who misunderstand it, it provides the basis for rigid determinism (niyatavada). As
for the contemplating yogi, he clearly sees the relevancy of each effect to its cause and
so he has no doubt about their one-to-one correspondence and the reality of moral freedom.
I have dwelt at length on noteworthy facts about Paticcasamuppada.
These will be clear to the yogis who consider them on the basis of their experience but as
the doctrine is profound, they will not be able to grasp some facts that are beyond their
intellectual level. It is of course only the omniscient Buddha who knew everything
thoroughly. The yogi should make it a point to know fully as far as possible within the
scope of his intellect. To this end, he should learn from the discourses of bhikkhus,
reflect over what he has learnt and enrich his understanding through the practice of
mindfulness.
Of the three methods of study, the third method (bhavanamaya) is the
most important for the yogi who gains insight-knowledge by this method, attains the holy
path and is liberated from the dangers of the lower worlds.
Conclusion
Now we will conclude the discourse on Paticcasamuppada with a
commentary on Arahant, the chief attribute of the Buddha.
The formula about the dependent origination consists of twelve links
beginning with ignorance and ending in death. It has ignorance and craving as two
root-causes and two life-cycles. The anterior cycle begins with ignorance and ends in
feeling, while the posterior cycle begins with craving and ends in death and old age.
Since anxiety, grief and the like do not occur in the Brahma world, they do not
necessarily stem from birth (jati) and, as such, are not counted among the links of the
dependent origination.
Furthermore, the anterior life-cycle explicitly shows only avijja and
sankhara; but avijja implies tanha-upadana and sankhara implies kammabhava. So all these
five links form the past causes, while vinnana, nama-rupa, ayatana, phassa and vedana form
the present effects. These vinnana, etc., are the wholesome or unwholesome kammic fruits
that are clearly experienced at the moment of seeing, etc. The posterior life-cycle
directly concerns tanha, upadana and kammabhava but these three causes imply avijja and
sankhara, and so as in the past avijja, tanha, upadana, sankhara and kammabhava represent
the five present causes that lead to birth, old age and death in future. These effects are
the same as those of vinnana, nama-rupa, etc. Thus, like the present effects, the future
effects are also five in number.
So there are altogether four groups of layers of five past causes, five
present effects, five present causes and five effects in the future. The layers represent
three causal relations viz., the relation between the past causes and the present effects;
the relation between the present effects and present causes; and the conditionality of
phenomenal existence is evident in these layers or the twenty links of cause and effect
which are termed //akara//. These links may be grouped in terms of vatta or cycles or
rounds of defilements, viz., the cycle of defilements, the cycle of kamma and the cycle of
kammic fruits which we have already explained before.
Those who have done good kammas pass through human, deva or Brahma
worlds while those who have done evil are doomed to rebirth in the lower worlds. Living
beings confined to life-cycle (samsara) get the chance to do good only when they have a
good teacher. A good teacher is hard to come by and so many people are largely prone to
evil deeds and subject to their kammic effects in terms of suffering. It is then said that
they are overtaken by Nemesis, that they have to pay for their round of kamma. Once
established on the Ariyan path, they cannot land in hell but as for the cycle of kammic
fruits, even the Buddhas and Arahats are not spared kammic retribution.
Cutting Off The Cycle Of Defilements
If we wish to end the threefold cycle, we will have to remove its cause
viz., the cycle of defilements. Defilements originate with seeing, hearing, etc., and so
we must practise mindfulness to prevent their arising when we see, hear, etc. The practice
of concentration and mindfulness makes the yogi aware of the impermanence and
insubstantiality of all phenomena. This means he has no more illusion and is free from the
cycle of defilements, kammas and kammic fruits.
Now, to sum up the way to the total conquest of the threefold cycle of
defilement, kammas and kammic results with reference to the attributes of the Buddha.
Arahan And The Attributes Of The Buddha
The Buddha's special designation is Arahan and this word points to the
following attributes of the Buddha.
(1) The Buddha was free from defilements. So were the Arahats but they
were not free from the habits that continued to dominate them even after the attainment of
their spiritual goal. This is evident in the story of thera Pilindavaccha. Pilinda was an
Arahat, beloved of the devas and extolled by the Buddha. Yet he was in the habit of
addressing his fellow bhikkhus or laymen rather rudely. Some bhikkhus complained to the
Buddha about the thera's rudeness. The Buddha attributed this unpleasant habit to his
having spent several lifetimes in the Brahmin families but said that being an Arahat, the
thera was pure and good at heart.
As for the Buddha, from the time of his attainment of supreme
enlightenment, he became free from all the habits or hangovers of defilements that were
carried over from past lives. This distinctive mark of the Buddha's Arahatship should be
borne in mind when we contemplate the Lord's attributes. The complete extinction of cycles
means total liberation from the three cycles of defilements, kamma and kammic fruits.
(2) The Buddha was called Arahan because of his conquest of
defilements. People fear only the external enemy such as robbers, snakes, etc. They do not
bother about the internal enemy, that is, defilements that are more terrible. In point of
fact, they have to suffer because of their mind-body complex and defilements. The
root-cause is the defilements that give rise to repeated rebirths and sufferings. The
defilements are ten in number viz., craving, hatred, ignorance, pride, illusion, doubt,
lassitude, restlessness, shamelessness and lack of conscience.
(3) By virtue of his outstanding moral integrity, wisdom and
enlightenment, the Buddha was worthy of reverence and offerings. People who revered or
made offerings to the Buddha have their wishes fulfilled.
(4) Since he had conquered the defilements completely, the Buddha was
pure at heart whether in public or solitude. Many people play the hypocrite, posing as
good men or women in public but doing evil when there is no-one to see or hear them. In
reality, there is no place where one can do evil secretly. Even though the evil-doer is
not seen by men and gods, he cannot help having qualms of conscience. His conscience is
the most infallible witness to his misdeeds and it forms the basis for death-bed visions
that point to unpleasant life that future has in store for him.
As for the Buddha, having wholly conquered all the defilements, his
mind was always pure and he had absolutely no desire or intention to do evil either
publicly or secretly.
(5) The Buddha had destroyed the spokes of the wheel with the sword of
the Arahatship. Here, the wheel means the cycle of life as described in the doctrine of
Paticcasamuppada and the sword means the insight-knowledge of the Arahat. The axle of the
wheel represents avijja, the root-cause; the fringe of the wheel stands for old age and
death, while the spokes stand for the middle links, viz., sankhara, etc. Just as the
removal of spokes makes it impossible for the wheel to move, so also the destruction of
the middle links in the chain of conditioned phenomena means the end of the cycle of life.
Story Of Baka Brahma
The first thing to do to end the life-cycle is to remove its root-cause
viz., ignorance, for ignorance is invariably followed by sankhara, vinnana, etc., down to
jaramarana (old age and death). This is true in the sensual worlds as well as in the
material world of Brahmas.
Once there was a great Brahma called Baka. He outlived many
world-systems (kappa); indeed he lived so long that at last he forgot his previous
existences and became convinced of his immortality without old age or death. The Buddha
went to his abode to remove his illusion. The Brahma welcomed the Lord and bragged about
his eternal life. The Buddha said that his ignorance was appalling in that he denied
impermanence, old age and death. He revealed the good deeds that had led to the Brahma's
longevity and it was this fabulous longevity that had made him oblivious of his previous
lives and created the illusion of his immortality. On hearing this, Baka Brahma had second
thoughts about his omnipotence. Still, he was conceited and in order to show his power, he
tried to vanish out of sight of the Buddha and other Brahmas but it was in vain. Because
of the power of the Lord, he remained visible.
Then the Buddha uttered the following verse:
Bhavevaham bhayam disva bhavan ja vibhavesinam bhavam nabhivadim kinci
nandincana upadiyim:
I do not extol any existence because I see danger in it. I have
renounced the craving for existence because I am aware of its evil.
Baka Brahma and other Brahmas had lived so long that they considered
their existence and their abode eternal. Likewise, the evils of life escape the notice of
those who have the blessings of a good life such as health, wealth, prestige, success and
so forth. But life is subject to suffering on all its three planes: sensual plane,
material plane and immaterial plane. A Brahma or a rishi on the material or immaterial
planes of existence may live for aeons but they too have to die eventually.
Sammasambuddha
It is insight knowledge that leads to the destruction of ignorance
which is the root-cause of suffering. For the Buddha, this means the attribute of
sammasambuddha. Sammasambuddha is one who knows the Four Noble Truths rightly, thoroughly
and independently. Here the twelve links of Paticcasamuppada may be differentiated in
terms of the Four Noble Truths.
Thus, old age and death together means the first truth of suffering and
rebirth means the truth about the cause of suffering. The cessation of this cause and this
effect means the truth about the cessation (nirodha) and, knowledge of this cessation
means the truth about the path to it (magga).
The same may be said of rebirth and kammic cause, kammic cause and
clinging, clinging and craving, craving and feeling, feeling and contact, contact and six
senses, the senses and nama-rupa, nama-rupa and consciousness, consciousness and sankhara,
and sankhara and ignorance. In short, what immediately precedes a link is termed its cause
(samudaya) and what immediately follows is called its effect (dukkha sacca). We can even
make ignorance (avijja), the origin of life-cycle, synonymous with truth about suffering
(dukkha sacca); if we regard it as an effect of the attachment (asava) viz., attachment to
sensual pleasure, existence, belief and ignorance.
Here, the identification of tanha with dukkha may not be acceptable to
some people. But it is reasonable if we remember the fact that all nama-rupa including
tanha means dukkha since it is subject to impermanence. The commentary does not describe
avijja as dukkha, but we can say it is dukkha arising from asava (biases). There are four
asavas that have their sources in sensual craving, attachment to life, false belief and
ignorance. It is a matter of ignorance in the past again giving rise to ignorance in the
present. Hence, the asavas may be regarded as the cause of avijja.
So having realized the Four Noble Truths and attained Nibbana, through
his own enlightenment, the Buddha earned the unique and glorious title of Sammasambuddha.
He knew that all the phenomena covered by the doctrine of Paticcasamuppada are the real
dukkha and the causes of dukkha. He was disenchanted, had no attachment and achieved
liberation from all fetters. So according to Visuddhimagga, he was called Arahan because
he managed to destroy completely all the supports of the wheel of life.
The Fame Of The Buddha
The fame of the Buddha pervaded the whole universe. It spread to all
parts of the universe through the inhabitants of some realms who came to hear the Buddha's
sermons or through the sermons which the Buddha himself gave in some realms or through the
former disciples who had landed in some higher realms after hearing the sermons.
We need not dwell on the first way in which the fame of the Buddha
spread. As regards the other two ways, in the course of his long wanderings in samsara,
the bodhisatta had been to all the realms except the five suddhavasa realms which are
meant only for those who have attained anagami stage. The bodhisatta usually attains all
the four stages on the path only in his last existence. So the Buddha had never been to
suddhavasa realm before and on one occasion he paid a visit to it by means of his psychic
powers. On arriving there, he received the homage of millions of brahmas, who told him
about the former Buddhas and their landing in suddhavasa realm as the result of their
attainment of anagami stage. Among these brahmas, there were also those who had practised
the dhamma as disciples of Gotama Buddha.
The Buddha visited all the five suddhavasa realms. It is easy to see
how he became famous in the realms that were the abodes of his former disciples. But the
question arises as to how his fame spread to the formless (arupa) realms. It was not
possible for the formless brahmas to come to the Buddha or for the Buddha to go to them.
Those who practised the Buddha-dhamma in the sensual or the material world, attaining the
first three stages on the path and dying with arupa (formless) jhana might land in the
formless worlds if they so desired. These noble ones were aware of the sublime attributes
of the Buddha and the possibility of attaining new insights through the practice of
mindfulness. So through mindfulness of all mental events, they finally became Arahats and
passed away in vinnanancayatana realm or akincannayatana realm or the highest realm called
Nevasannanasannayatana. In this way, the fame of the Buddha spread throughout the whole
universe.
The Four Noble Truths In Brief
We have dealt in detail with the Buddha's knowledge of the Four Noble
Truths vis-a-vis his attribute of Sammasambuddha. We will now repeat the four truths
briefly. According to the scriptures, all the nama-rupa in the sensual, material and
immaterial worlds, exclusive of tanha, constitute dukkha. This is the first truth. Tanha
as the cause of dukkha is the second truth. Nibbana as the cessation of dukkha is the
third truth, and the Ariyan path as the way to cessation is the fourth truth. These Four
Noble Truths are realized experientially by the yogi through the practice of vipassana.
From experience he knows that all that is arising and passing away mean dukkha, attachment
to them is the cause, that cessation of both the dukkha and its cause is Nibbana, and that
its attainment is the path.
Sammasambuddha And Buddhahood
Both of the two Pali terms viz., Buddha and Sammasambuddha mean
omniscience or knowledge of all the dhammas. This raises the question of how to make a
distinction between the two attributes connected by the two terms. By the attribute of
sammasambuddha, we are to understand that the bodhisatta attained Buddhahood on the basis
of independent reflection, and effort and the realization of the Four Noble Truths through
insight on the path of Arahatship. Buddhahood means the thorough and exhaustive knowledge
of all the conditioned and the unconditioned dhammas on the basis of the unique attributes
possessed by the Buddha such as omniscience (sabbannutanana), etc.
These unique attributes of the Buddha consist in knowledge of the Four
Noble Truths, four kinds of analytical knowledge and six kinds of knowledge that are not
to be found among disciples (asadharananana). The six asadharananana are: (1) knowledge of
the different moral and spiritual levels of living beings, (2) knowledge of the desires,
inclinations and latent tendencies (anusaya) of living beings, (3) the power to create
super-miracles (yamakapatihariyanana), (4) infinite compassion for all living beings, (5)
omniscience, and (6) knowledge without any hindrance or obstruction of anything which the
Buddha wants to know and which he brings into the focus of his attention.
Now a few words about the conditioned (sankhara) and unconditioned
(asankhara) dhammas. The sankharas are the nama-rupa or the five aggregates of khandhas
that arise owing to the harmonious combination of relevant factors. In other words, they
are the phenomena conditioned by favourable circumstances. Thus, sound is produced when
there is friction between two hard objects such as sticks or iron bars. Here sound is
sankhara. As opposed to sankhara is asankhara which has nothing to do with causes. The
only ultimate reality (paramattha) in the category of asankhara dhammas is Nibbana. Of the
non-paramattha asankharas there are many kinds of names such as names of shapes, figures
and so forth.
The Buddha's sabbannutanana is so called because it encompasses the
whole range of conditioned and unconditioned dhammas. It is also described in terms of the
five neyyadhamma viz., the sankhara, the distinctive qualities of certain rupas
(nipphanna), the conditioned characteristics of nama-rupa, Nibbana and names.
The first two attributes of the Buddha forming the knowledge of the
different spiritual levels, inclinations and latent tendencies of living beings are
labelled Buddha-eye (Buddha-cakkhu). With this all-seeing eye, the Buddha chose the living
beings who ought to be enlightened, and preached to them the appropriate dhamma at the
appropriate moment.
We conclude the discourse on the Paticcasamuppada with the commentary
on the attributes of the Buddha (Arahan) because we wish to inspire the readers with faith
in the Blessed One. We hope that they will find the source of inspiration too, in the
Arahats who also possess the Arahan attribute. The Arahat is wholly free from defilements,
he has destroyed the framework of life-cycle; there is no secret place where he will do
evil and so he is worthy of honour. These are the qualities that make up his Arahan
attribute although this attribute as possessed by the ordinary Arahat is below the
superlative Arahan attribute of the Buddha.
So you should try to overcome defilements through mindfulness of the
nama-rupa processes that arise at the six sense-doors, destroy the supports of the wheel
of life and keep your mind pure all the time in order that you may eventually become
Arahats and earn the glorious title of Arahan.
SUMMARY
From the two root-causes referred to in the two noble truths there
arise four layers, three cycles, three connections, twelve links, three time-dimensions,
twenty phenomena and five nama-rupa processes. One who watches these present resultant
processes effectively does not have craving that is rooted in feeling and so he will put
an end to life-cycle completely.
In other words, the yogi watches every psycho-physical event that
occurs at the six senses clearly in terms of its impermanence, unsatisfactoriness and
egolessness.
Through such effective practice of mindfulness, the yogi gains insight
into the nature of the sense-object such as sound, visual form, etc., and overcomes the
attachment to it by the opposite (tadanga), that is, he overcomes it by opposing it with
the knowledge that undercuts it. The cessation of attachment rules out the arising of the
other phenomena e.g. clinging, process of becoming, rebirth, etc. After this cessation
through vipassana insight, the yogi overcomes the latent attachment completely through
destruction (samuccheda) when he attains the insight knowledge on the Ariyan path. At this
moment the other phenomena e.g. clinging, etc., also become totally extinct.
There is no teaching which says that with the extinction of feeling,
craving too ceases to exist. This is no wonder for even the Arahats do not have any
control over their feelings that arise from contact with the six senses.
There are certain psycho-physical phenomena that have to be watched and
noted as they really are i.e. in terms of anicca, dukkha and anatta if the yogi wants to
remove the present causes such as tanha etc., the future results and end the cycle of
suffering. These phenomena with their Pali terms are explained below.
(1) Vinnana: consciousness, which is of six kinds viz.,
eye-consciousness, ear-consciousness, nose-consciousness, tongue-consciousness,
body-consciousness and mind-consciousness.
(2) Nama: mental factors (cetasikas) that arise together with
consciousness. Rupa: the physical phenomena that arises together with that consciousness.
Nama-rupa may be translated as mind and matter.
(3) Salayatana: the six bases of mental activity, that is, the six
internal bases comprising the consciousness and the five physical sense-organs viz., eye,
ear, nose, tongue and body and the six external bases viz., visible object, sound, odour,
sap or gustative object, body-impression and mind-object.
(4) Phassa: contact or impression, which is of six kinds viz., visual
impression, impression of hearing, of smelling, of tasting, bodily impression and mental
impression.
(5) Vedana: feelings which is of three kinds viz., pleasant feeling,
unpleasant feeling and indifferent feeling. We may also distinguish six kinds of feelings:
feelings associated with seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, body-impression and mental
impression.
1. Two root-causes:
Ignorance (avijja) and craving (tanha).
2. Two truths:
Truth about the cause (craving) and truth about suffering (dukkha).
3. Four layers:
(1) The layer of the past cause - ignorance, kamma formations
(sankhara), craving, clinging and becoming.
(2) The layer of present result - consciousness, mind-body complex, six
bases of mental activity, impression, feeling.
(3) The layer of present cause - craving, clinging, kamma, becoming,
ignorance, kamma formations (sankhara).
(4) Future result - birth, old age, death, consciousness, etc.
4. Three cycles:
(1) The cycle of defilements - ignorance, craving, clinging.
(2) The cycle of kamma - kamma formations (sankhara), kamma and
becoming.
(3) The cycle of kammic results - consciousness, mind-body complex, six
bases of mental activity, impression, feeling, birth, old age and death.
5. Three connections:
(1) The connection between the past kamma formations (sankhara) as the
past cause and consciousness as the present result.
(2) The connection between feeling as the present result and craving as
the present cause.
(3) The connection between becoming as the present cause and birth as
the future result.
6. Twelve links:
(1) ignorance (2) kamma formations (3) consciousness (4) mental and
physical phenomena (5) six bases (6) impression (7) feeling (8) craving (9) clinging (10)
becoming (11) rebirth (12) old age and death
7. Three time-dimensions:
(1) The infinite past - ignorance and kamma formations.
(2) The infinite present - consciousness, mind-body complex, six bases,
impression, feeling, craving, clinging, kamma-process.
(3) The infinite future - rebirth, old age and death.
8. Twenty elements:
(1) Five elements of the causative process in the past existence.
(2) Five elements of the resultant process in the present existence.
(3) Five elements of the causative process in the present existence.
(4) Five elements of the resultant process in the future existence.