Manovinnana that thinks, conceives and
cognizes has its origin in the mind and mind-objects. The mind which forms its basis is
the bhavanga-citta that we have from the moment of conception. It occurs ceaselessly
according to kamma. It is the basis for perception and cognition. When we sleep or when
the mind is otherwise occupied, our mental life is all bhavanga-citta. It becomes active
in the face of mind-objects and there arise intention and cognition. So we can think and
know only on the basis of bhavanga. True, this citta is always present in the absence of
intention and cognition but bhavanga can lead to mental events only when it is strong.
At times we cannot think because we are drowsy or our thinking may be
futile, in spite of our effort, and this is due to weakness of bhavanga. Thus, bhavanga by
itself serves little purpose. It becomes active only when it is in contact with a new
sense-object. Hence, it is called bhavangacalana, active bhavanga or bhavanga-paccheda,
bhavanga with its stream cut off. This last bhavanga gives rise to intention and
cognition. According to the commentaries, avajjana (advertence of the mind towards the
object) is also to be considered the basis for mental activity. Avajjana forms the first
stage in the consciousness-process. It arises as the inquiring state of mind in regard to
the object. If it is alert and sharp, it is mindful of all the essential facts and
objects.
The good writer considers the important facts for his book and the good
speaker chooses appropriate words for his speech, thereby making their writings and
speeches perfect. Further, this avajjana leads to good or bad kammic consciousness
accordingly as it is bent on good or bad objectives. It is open to introspection and
cognition since we can know actually that intention and awareness arise from avajjana. So
the words: "mananja - mind as the basis" should be understood as reference also
to avajjana.
Equally vital to mental activity is the mind-object. The object always
arises when we reflect. In the absence of mind-objects mental activity is impossible.
Thus, sometimes we wish to think but have to give up thinking because we cannot recall the
essential facts or objects.
Hence, mental activity depends on the conjunction of the mind
(bhavanga), inquiring mind (avajjana) and the mind-objects.
According to the commentaries, the heart forms the physical basis of
all mental events. But today Western doctors have removed the diseased heart of a patient
and replaced it with a good substitute. The experiment was not a complete success but the
press reports say that the transplanted heart functioned for a few days. This news may
raise doubts about the role of the heart in the mental life of mankind.
This question admits of two explanations. Although the heart is
removed, its potency may not become extinct and bhavanga-citta may still linger in its
place just like the tail of a house-lizard that moves after it has been cut off. Moreover,
the bhavanga-citta may become active again when the transplant gets a new lease of life
from the blood of the body, just as the new tissue or new eye ball that is engrafted has
new sensitivity. Or, we can dispose of the question on the basis of Abhidhamma pitaka, for
Patthana, one of the Abhidhamma books, describes the physical basis of manovinnana (mind)
simply as "that physical organ which conditions the mind as its basis." It does
not specifically mention any organ or part of the body. Thus, according to this canonical
book, we may assume that a certain part of the body is the seat of the mind, perhaps it is
a certain part of the heart or the head. Those who do not wish to locate the mind in the
heart may regard the head as its physical basis.
Here, we must mention the analogy of the spider and the evolution of
mind as set forth in the commentary on Abhidhamma pitaka. The spider builds a web which is
a kind of net for catching flies. It can do so instinctively in a matter of days after its
birth whereas by contrast even a year-old child can do nothing for himself. The spider
waits in the center of its web, eats up any creature that gets entangled there and returns
to its abode. In the same way, the bhavanga or mano-vinnana has the heart as its abode and
like the threads of the spider's web connecting its abode and its surroundings, the blood
pumped by the heart flows through the blood-vessels and spreads all over the body. So the
visual image in the eye stirs the bhavanga-citta in the heart and turns it into
eye-consciousness and so on through its process (vithi). It (bhavanga) then turns back to
its original seat. The same may be said of sound, smell, etc., with their respective
sense-organs.
It is now clear that bhavanga, together with its original activity,
that is, thinking and knowing, forms the mainspring of our mental life. When there is a
visual object, the eye-consciousness arises with the eye as its basis and then the
manovinnana reflects on it. The same is true of the ear-consciousness, etc., with the ear,
the nose and the tongue as their bases. As for the body-consciousness, its sphere is
extensive as it depends on the size of the body.
When the sense-objects are not apparent, the mano-vinnana or the mind
that comprises thinking and knowing holds sway over the mental life. Sometimes we are so
much absorbed in thought that we remain unmindful of all sense-objects. Preoccupation with
an important matter may even make us sleepless. We are then dominated by thoughts that
arise ceaselessly one after another on the basis of mental activity as conditioned by
bhavanga, avajjana and mind-objects. To the yogi who notes every thought as it arises,
these thoughts will appear to arise and vanish separately in fragments.
Every mental event depends on the conjunction of mind, mind-object and
cognition. This is followed by contact with mental images. These images, which may be real
or unreal, existent or non-existent, are present in imagination whenever we think or
intend to do something. This is familiar to those who have read, for example, the jataka
stories. Reading these stories give rise to mental images of cities and kings that are
coloured by Burmese beliefs and traditions. They are far from historical truth for since
the stories have their origin in India, people and places described in the jatakas must
have conformed to the Indian culture and way of life.
Modern novels evoke images of towns, villages, men, women, criminals
and so forth. The reader knows that all these are purely fictitious and imaginary and yet
while he is reading, they appear as real and, hence, the delight, sorrow and other
emotions that a good story arouses in him. All this is due to contact with mental images.
As the Buddha says in Brahmajala sutta, "these teachings and
beliefs stem from vivid imagination that makes them clear and real." In short, vivid
imagination is necessary when we speak, write, hold a belief or think or just let the mind
wander freely.
Imagination leads to feeling. Pleasant images cause pleasant feeling as
do, for example, images related to our past affluence or the prospect of becoming affluent
in future. On the other hand, unpleasant images make us unhappy. To think of the past
suffering is to revive unpleasant memories and equally unpleasant is the anticipation of
the troubles and arisings that might beset us in future. The cause of such unpleasantness
may be purely imaginary as in the case of the people who grieved over the reported death
of a relative only to learn later that he was still alive.
The image that is neither pleasant nor unpleasant will give rise to
neutral (upekkha) feeling. We are then neither happy nor unhappy. Indeed we have the
impression of having no feeling at all, but this indicates simply the subtle nature of
upekkhavedana which, according to the commentaries., is to be known by the analogy of the
tracks of the deer.
When a deer runs across a large rock, the track is lost since the
animal leaves no footprints on it, but if the footprints are to be found on both sides of
the rock, we conclude that the deer has run across the rock. Likewise, the yogi is well
aware of the pleasant or unpleasant feelings. When he has upekkhavedana he does not notice
it and is mindful only of seeing, hearing and so forth. But after that, he has again
pleasant or unpleasant feeling and so he concludes that he has had neutral (upekkha)
feeling while being mindful of ordinary mental events.
So the Buddha says: "Conditioned by the mind and mind-object
manovinnana arises; the conjunction of mind, mind-object and manovinnana leads to
sense-contact and, because of sense-contact, there is feeling."
This is purely a process of cause-and-effect relationship that has
nothing to do with a being, ego, creator or any happening by chance. By the Pali word
"dhamma", the teaching refers to the five sense-objects as well as the imagined
objects. The five sense-objects again become the focus of mental activity. So manovinnana
involves all the six sense-objects, that is, what one has seen, heard, etc., and what one
has not seen, not heard, etc. Every sense-object leads to sense-contact which in turn
gives rise to feeling.
For common people, these mental events are bound up with the idea of
ego, self or atta. Such an idea is an illusion irrelevant to the chain of causation. This
is empirically realized by the mindful yogi. He notes every mental event, traces its cause
and becomes aware of the bhavanga and avajjana as well as the mind-object. So he knows
empirically that every mental event means only the interrelation of cause and effect,
leaving no room for ego, creator or chance.
He knows too that mental activity leads to sense-contact which in turn
gives rise to feeling. His knowledge is not bookish but empirical. He follows and notes
every mental event. If his mind wanders to his home while he is meditating at a retreat,
he directs his attention to it and there is the contact between his mind and its object,
viz., the image of the house. In the same way, contacts with Shwedagon pagoda or a foreign
country occur when he notes and follows the corresponding thoughts that distract his mind.
This contact with mind-objects is phassa.
Equally clear to the yogi is the feeling that results from
sense-contact. While practising meditation, he feels delighted when he happens to think of
something that pleases him; sorry when the thought about a sad event occurs to him;
inclined to laugh when he thinks of something ludicrous. So he knows that feeling is
merely the outcome of sense-contact. But the insight of the yogi who notes nama-rupa at
every moment of their arising is deeper than this knowledge of the origin of feeling. For
as he develops concentration and tranquillity (samadhi), he finds that every object of his
introspection as well as its subject, that is, consciousness, passes away. So he gains a
clear insight into the impermanence of all mental events, viz., thinking, feeling, etc.,
their unsatisfactoriness and unreliability and their impersonal and insubstantial
character. Such insight means the empirical realization and appreciation of the
Paticcasamuppada or dependent origination.
Recapitulation
In the first part of the discourse we have explained the links in the
chain of causation up to the vedana (feeling) which arises from phassa (sense-contact). To
sum up what we have said so far.
Avijja is ignorance of the four noble truths. It makes ordinary people
blind to the impermanence and insubstantiality of sense-objects. So they think, speak and
act in the hope of securing happiness in the present life or hereafter. These deeds in
thought, word or bodily actions are either wholesome or unwholesome and they are also
called sankharas (kamma-formation).
The sankharas give rise to new existence. The dying person has
flashbacks of his kammic deeds and visions of future life that impress him and condition
his new consciousness in a new life. In the absence of any special object that concerns
the new consciousness, the latter occurs repeatedly with the death-bed impression of his
previous life as its object.
This bhavanga-citta becomes active at the moment of seeing, etc. Then,
there arises eye-consciousness that is dependent on the eye and visual form. It is part of
the state of consciousness, that is, the whole mental life as conditioned by sankhara.
What we see, hear, etc., may be pleasant or unpleasant and the corresponding nature of
eye-consciousness, ear-consciousness, etc., is due to the ethical character of our past
deeds, that is the wholesomeness or unwholesomeness of the kammas in the past existence.
This applies to all of the six types of consciousness that arise from
six sense-objects. The last type of consciousness, implicit in mental activity comprising
thinking, imagining, willing, etc., is dependent on bhavanga-citta, avajjana-citta (mental
advertence), the physical basis and the mental image. This mental activity (manovinnana)
involves seven thought-moments (javana) and two other thought-moments (tadarammana). Here
tadarammana is the product of good or bad kamma. Javana is not such a product, but in
Abhidhamma it is labelled sankhara-based vinnana in that it arises from bhavanga, the
product of sankhara.
Together with the arising of vinnana, there also arises other
concomitant psycho-physical phenomena (cetasika and rupas). Thus vinnana leads to
nama-rupa, but vinnana is followed also by the six ayatana (sense-organs) and six phassa
(sense-impressions). Phassa means the conjunction of the mind, the mind-object and the
sense-organ. It gives rise to vedana (feeling) which may be pleasant or unpleasant or
neither pleasant nor unpleasant. The last kind of feeling which is called upekkhavedana,
gives us the impression of the absence of any feeling, but according to Abhidhamma, it is
in fact a kind of subtle pleasure that implies only the absence of unbearable pain.
Vedana Leads To Tanha
Because of pleasant or unpleasant feeling, there arises tanha. Tanha
means perpetual craving or hunger. It craves for sensual objects that it does not have or
it craves for more of the objects that it already has. It knows no satiety or
satisfaction. For all the sensual objects to gratify it, its hunger is insatiable.
So a deva said that devas are like petas in that just as the petas are
very hungry because of lack of anything to eat or drink in their realm, so also devas are
always hungry although they indulge in all kinds of sensual pleasure. This sounds quite
plausible. For the life-span of a Tavatimsa deva means millions of years on earth and the
life is still longer in other higher deva-worlds such as Yama, Nimmanarati. Yet, in spite
of their ceaseless and fabulously lifelong enjoyment of pleasure, the devas are never
satisfied because their tanha is insatiable.
The same is true of human beings. Poor people seek sensual pleasure to
the best of their ability. Of course, because of their poverty, they can never fulfil all
their desires but equally insatiable is the craving of the rich, the high officials and
the upper crust of society. This is due to the nature of tanha. The more it is fed, the
more hungry it becomes and so it is worse among the rich than among the poor, more
oppressive in wealthy countries than in poor countries.
Six Kinds Of Tanha
Tanha is never tired of seeing pleasant objects, man or woman whom it
likes. It seeks sweet sounds. It hungers for good scent, good food and good drinks. It
craves for tactile sensation and this is surely the worst craving for people who love
sensual pleasure. Tanha also means liking for mind-objects that are impervious to the eye,
the ear and other physical organs. It is the object that we can know only mentally.
According to the scriptures it means the five sensitive (pasada) rupas, the four subtle
elements such as apo, etc., the mental elements (cetasikas) concepts of forms, qualities,
names, etc.
People crave for good pasada-rupas because they want to see clearly, to
hear distinctly, or to have keen sense of touch. They seek apo elements as they wish to
keep their mouth, throat and skin moist. They delight in the consciousness of their own
sex and the opposite and hence their craving for manhood and womanhood. They want to live
long and to move lightly, and this desire shows their hunger for the fine rupas of jivita
and kayalahuta, etc. Their desire for happiness, good memory and good intelligence points
to their craving for certain mental faculties. Love of one's own physical appearance and
that of the opposite sex as well as the desire for praise and fame again shows the hunger
for concepts.
For six sense-objects there are six kinds of craving. These six
cravings may mean merely the love of sensual pleasure (kamatanha). This love may be
combined with the illusion of permanence (bhavatanha), tanha that implies the
eternity-belief. Craving is also bound up with the belief in annihilation which makes some
people overly attached to sensual pleasure (vibhavatanha). So there are six cravings
(corresponding to six sense-objects) for each of the three tanhas (kamatanha, bhavatanha
and vibhavatanha) or 18 cravings. Each of these cravings may have internal objects or
external objects and this leads to 36 kinds of craving. Since each craving may relate to
the present, past or future, there are thus a total of 108 kinds of tanha. But all kinds
of craving boil down to three kinds of tanha viz., kama-, bhava- and vibhava-tanhas.
People who are in contact with unpleasant sense-objects long for
pleasant objects. Those who suffer pain seek freedom from it. In short, according to the
commentary, the suffering person longs for happiness. People seek freedom from pain,
poverty and unpleasant objects and feelings. Absence of suffering means happiness (sukha).
We seek freedom from preoccupation with unpleasant thoughts, from worry about food,
clothing and shelter. But, once a man is well provided with the necessities of life, he
tends to develop other cravings. Says the commentary, "The wealthy man wants to
increase his wealth." For it is in the nature of tanha to be insatiable. We wish to
enjoy the good things of life repeatedly; we wish to increase our possessions. The more we
have, the more we want, and the higher the quality of life is, the greater is the desire
to enhance it. Tanha never comes to an end for it is fuelled and perpetuated by vedana or
feeling.
As regards the tanha associated with upekkha (neutral) feeling, the
commentary describes the concomitant feeling as pleasant (sukha) because of its poise and
subtlety. In the case of our contact with ordinary sense-objects, neither the pleasant
feeling nor unpleasant feeling is apparent; but since this upekkha feeling is fine and
subtle, it is tinged with (sukha) pleasantness and hence it makes us crave for more
definite pleasure. It leads to discontentment with the ordinary sense-objects and kindles
the desire for better food, better clothes, better sense-contact and better living
conditions.
In short, pleasant sense-objects create attachment and craving for
better objects. Unpleasant objects create the desire to be rid of them. When the
sense-objects produce neither pleasant nor unpleasant feelings, we are still discontented
with our lot and crave for better things. All these show how vedana gives rise to tanha.
Tanha And Samsara
Simultaneously with the arising of consciousness at the moment of
seeing, etc., there arise nama-rupa, ayatana, phassa and vedana. For every ordinary person
who is not yet free from defilements, vedana (feeling) leads to tanha. Tanha in turn
causes upadana (clinging) that makes him do a good or a bad deed (kammabhava). Under
certain conditions, kammabhava gives rise to rebirth that makes living beings subject to
old age, sickness, death, grief and all other mental and physical sufferings. This is how
feelings lead to samsaric dukkha.
Nobody can prevent the arising of nama-rupa, ayatana, phassa and vedana
as concomitants of vinnana. The Buddha and the Arahats, too, have pleasant, unpleasant or
neutral (upekkha) feelings as a result of contact with sense-objects. They feel pain that
arises from physical affliction but they do not suffer mentally; nor do they take delight
in pleasant sensations. So they are free from craving and attachment. They do not strive
for pleasure and happiness and because of their non-kammic way of life, they do away with
rebirth, nama-rupa and other causes of suffering. This is the extinction of dukkha for the
Arahat who is completely free from defilements.
So it is said, "Due to the complete extinction of tanha that is
rooted in pleasant or unpleasant feeling on the Ariyan path, there arises the extinction
of upadana (clinging)."
Experience of the pleasant or unpleasant feelings make the non-Arahats
crave for the good things of life but it has no effect on the person who has attained
Arahatship after passing through the successive stages on the holy path. This may sound
incredible to the common people but in fact the most alluring sense-object has no appeal
for the Arahat and he takes no interest in his welfare. He is, therefore, wholly free from
craving and attachment and this means complete extinction of kammic effort, rebirth and
its attendant suffering.
So it is said, "The extinction of upadana leads to the extinction
of the cause of rebirth (kammic effort). The extinction of kammic effort leads to
extinction of rebirth. Extinction of rebirth leads to extinction of old age, death, grief,
etc."
Extinction Of Craving
In short, with the complete extinction of tanha due to Arahatship,
there is the complete extinction of all its consequences and this means the extinction of
suffering. It does not imply the disappearance of happiness or a living being. It is
simply the cessation of the nama-rupa process that is the source of dukkha.
Just as Arahatship means complete extinction of craving, the attainment
of anagami stage on the path means extinction of sensuous craving together with rebirth in
the sensual world, old age, death, etc. At the sotapatti stage, the yogi is assured of
extinction of all craving that may lead to the lower worlds or more than seven existences.
So he is free from all suffering of the lower worlds and the suffering for more than seven
lifetimes in the sensual world. Thus implicit in the Paticcasamuppada is the lessening of
dukkha with the weakening of tanha.
Likewise, the vipassana insight ensures the momentary extinction of
tanha. The arising of six sense-objects leads to pleasant or unpleasant feeling and in the
absence of vipassana insight, it finally ends in tanha and its attendant suffering.
But as for the yogi who practises constant mindfulness and has
developed vipassana insight, he finds only the arising and passing away of all phenomena,
their impermanence, suffering and impersonality. He also finds that the pleasant or
unpleasant feeling arises and passes away instantly. So he does not delight in the feeling
that arises, he does not crave for another feeling; he is free from all craving.
Extinction of craving on the Ariyan holy path differs from extinction
by vipassana in that in the former case, the extinction is permanent and it concerns every
sense-object whereas in the latter case extinction is neither permanent nor universal.
Tanha is extinct only at the moment of contemplation and only in respect of the object
contemplated. Hence, it is called "tadanga nibbuti", momentary or partial
extinction of defilements.
The yogi who practises meditation is barely aware of seeing, hearing,
etc. This state of bare awareness leaves no room for tanha and as a result upadana
(clinging), kamma, rebirth, etc., cease to occur. In other words, with the cessation of
tanha, the samsaric cycle is partly cut off and this is called tadanga nibbuti.
The Story Of Mahatissa Thera
There is the story of Mahatissa thera in Sri Lanka who overcame tanha
through the practice of both samatha and vipassana. One day he left his forest retreat
early in the morning and on the way to Anuradha city for his begging round, he met a woman
who had left her home after quarrelling with her husband. At the sight of the thera, there
arose in her a lustful desire and she laughed aloud seductively. On looking at her the
thera noticed her teeth. Since he had been contemplating the skeleton, the whole body of
the woman appeared as a heap of bones. He concentrated on this mental image and attained
jhana. Then, after contemplating the image of the skeleton in his jhanic state of mind, he
attained Arahatship.
The thera continued his journey and on the way met the woman's husband.
The man asked him whether he had seen a woman. The thera replied that he did see something
but that he did not know whether it was a man or a woman. All that he noticed was a
skeleton that passed him on the way.
What he actually saw was the woman's teeth, but his practice of
contemplation had turned his impression of her body into the image of a skeleton. Hence,
in his mind there was no room for lust or any other defilement arising from his
sense-contact with the woman. Then practising vipassana on the basis of his jhanic
consciousness, he became free from defilements and attained Arahatship.
This story might raise doubts among non-meditating people as regards
the arising of the image of a skeleton at the sight of a person's teeth, but without
practice one cannot have any clear idea of what mind training (bhavana) can accomplish.
The mere exercise of concentration without any training cannot help to create mental
images for these depend on steadfast and prolonged practice of contemplation. Imagination
is the power of perception. Repeated contemplation strengthens perception which then helps
create any kind of image of oneself or other people. This faculty of mind is possible even
for a parrot as is borne out by a story in the commentary on Satipatthana sutta.
Story Of A Parrot
A dancer put up for the night at the residence of bhikkhunis and when
she went away, she left an intelligent parrot. The bird was cared for by the novitiates
and it was called Buddha-rakkhita. The abbess of the nunnery thought that it would be good
if there was something to contemplate for the bird living among the spiritual aspirants.
So she taught her to contemplate "atthi: skeleton".
One morning the parrot was swooped up by an eagle. In the wake of the
hue and cry raised by the young nuns, the eagle became frightened and dropped the parrot.
The Abbess asked it what it contemplated when it was seized by the eagle. The bird
replied, "I thought of a skeleton being carried off and I wondered where it would be
scattered." The Abbess said "Well done! This contemplation will contribute to
your liberation from samsaric existence."
A thing that is repeatedly contemplated will become fixed in the long
run. Since even a parrot can imagine a skeleton, there is no reason why a human being
cannot do likewise. The parrot imagined itself as well as others to be skeletons. Because
of this contemplation, it had no fear, anger or worry when it was taken away by the eagle.
So Satipatthana bhavana is extolled as a practice that helps to
overcome grief and anxiety and to bring about the extinction of mental and physical
suffering. But there may be many people who are not as wise as the parrot in the story
since they never take interest in the dhamma and contemplate it. The yogi should resolve
to surpass the parrot in the practice of vipassana.
If Mahatissa thera had failed to regard the laughing woman as a
skeleton, he might have become lustful and fallen a victim to temptation in the solitude
of the forest. Even if he had no sexual desire at that time, any impression of the woman
would have laid him open to temptation at other times. But thanks to his contemplation of
the skeleton in the practice of vipassana, he overcame defilements and achieved final
liberation from samsaric existence. Here, the extinction of tanha through vipassana
practice is called tadanga nibbuti, partial extinction, while extinction through
arahatship is called "total extinction".
Contemplation And Extinction
So with the total extinction of tanha that results from vedana, there
is the extinction of upadana which means the extinction of all the consequences of
craving. Contemplation of anicca, dukkha and anatta ensures the partial extinction of
tanha, upadana, kamma, rebirth, etc. The object of vipassana practice is to put an end to
defilements and samsaric suffering. So it is a matter of paramount importance that
deserves the attention of everyone who seeks total liberation. Without this practice,
pleasant or unpleasant feeling at every moment of seeing, etc., is bound to lead to
craving, kamma and rebirth.
The consciousness involved in every moment of seeing is due to avijja
and sankhara in the previous existence. Seeing occurs together with vinnana, nama-rupa,
ayatana, phassa and vedana. The scriptures treat each of these dhammas separately in terms
of their causal relations, but in fact they do not arise separately one after another. If
vinnana arises from sankhara, it arises together with its respective nama-rupa, ayatana,
phassa and vedana. All of these dhammas are the results of the past kamma sankhara. They
are termed vipaka-vatta which means round or cycle of resultants. The round of defilements
viz., ignorance, craving and clinging produce round of kamma viz., kamma and sankhara
which leads to round of resultants viz., consciousness, nama-rupa, sense-organs, contact,
feeling which again give rise to the round of defilements.
The arising of these five resultants at the moment of seeing means to
most people simply just seeing. In fact, seeing is the product of vinnana, nama-rupa,
ayatana, phassa and vedana as are other psycho-physical events such as hearing, smelling
and so forth.
Seeing involves consciousness together with mental advertence
(manasikara), volition (cetana), etc., plus the eye-organ which comprises the nama-rupa.
It also involves four ayatanas viz., eye sensitivity, visual object, eye consciousness and
mental advertence (dhammayatana). Contact with the visual object is phassa and the
pleasantness or unpleasantness that the object causes is vedana. Hence all the five
resultants are bound up with every moment of seeing. The same may be said of other
phenomena that arise from hearing, smelling and so forth.
Cutting Off At The Foundation
These five psycho-physical resultants or phenomena occur ceaselessly
one after another and comprise what we call man, deva or living being. These are
conventional terms that refer in fact to the collection of the five nama-rupa elements.
There is no solid, monolithic and permanent being. The only reality is the arising and
passing away of nama-rupa and for the mindful yogi, this insight means the extinction of
craving, clinging, kamma, rebirth, suffering - a chain of consequences that might result
from feeling in the case of common people.
This is the way to the cessation of the wheel of life
(Paticcasamuppada) through the elimination of its key link viz., tanha as conditioned by
feeling. In order to prevent tanha from arising as the result of vedana, at every moment
of seeing the yogi should focus on every phenomenon that arises from six senses. Here, the
most obvious of these sense contacts is the tactile sensation that concerns gross primary
elements (Mahabhuta) and it is necessary for the beginner to start contemplation with it.
This way is in accord with the Buddha's teaching in Satipatthana sutta,
"Gacchanto va gacchamiti pajanati: (the yogi) knows that he is walking when he
walks." How does he know it? He knows it as he notes mentally "walking,
walking". He practises mindfulness, too, when he stands, lies, bends his arms, or
does anything else. When there is no bodily action or movement to be noted, he should
direct his attention to the abdominal rising and falling. He should also note any thought,
or mental activity and any feeling that may arise in him. In short, he must be mindful of
all the psycho-physical phenomena that arise from the six senses. As concentration
develops, such mindfulness leads to insight into anicca, dukkha and anatta, an insight
that leaves no room for craving. With the extinction of craving, there is also an end to
clinging, and rebirth with all its attendant suffering. This is the way to the cessation
of samsaric existence or life-cycle through the elimination of its root cause, namely,
craving.
Today, science and technology have created machines which we cannot run
or stop running without a knowledge of their modus operandi. Those who know the secret can
operate them by manipulating their key plugs. In the same way, the keynote of the
life-cycle as described by the doctrine of Paticcasamuppada is that tanha is caused by
vedana, but this is true only if vedana is coupled with two kinds of latent tendencies
(anusaya) viz., Santananusaya and arammananusaya. The Arahats are free from these
tendencies and so, although they have feelings, their craving is extinct. This extinction
of craving leaves no room for new kamma, neutralizes old kamma, and there is no more
rebirth after their parinibbana.
But ordinary people have potential defilements which means not the
existence of evil desires lying latent somewhere but only the possibility of their arising
under certain circumstances. Hence, the Pali term santananusaya kilesa for this tendency.
This potential kilesa may become greed, hatred, ignorance and other evils in the case of
those who fail to contemplate the nama-rupas and so become subject to the illusions of
permanency, happiness and ego-entity. This kilesa which may arise from sense-objects in
the absence of vipassana insight is called arammananusaya kilesa.
Kilesa And Unmindfulness
Greed and anger that arise in connection with what one has seen or
heard are the manifestations of the second kind of latent tendency. The impressions that
we retain are those of permanent, lovely or repulsive beings or things. So recall of those
images gives rise to attachment (lobha), anger (dosa) or illusion of permanency (moha).
Lobha is another synonym for tanha. It is due to pleasant feeling but
it may also arise when unpleasant feeling makes us crave for pleasant sensations.
Ignorance, too, leads to complacency, attachment and craving. Thus lobha, dosa and moha
give rise to feeling which in turn causes craving with its attendant sufferings of
samsaric existence. It is only the practice in bare awareness of seeing, hearing, etc.,
that rules out the possibility of craving and nostalgia for the pleasant sensations from
the senses. Without this practice, craving dominates us and leads to suffering in
afterlife as well as here and now.
In the Mora jataka, the bodhisatta who was then a peacock used to utter
a gatha when he arose in the morning and when he went to sleep in the evening. So for 700
years he escaped the trap set by a hunter. Then the hunter employed a peahen as a decoy
and enticed by her, the peacock forgot to recite the gatha and fell into the trap. In
Benares, there was a harpist called Guttila. He made love to a girl but he was ridiculed
and rejected. So at night he sang a very sweet song and played his harp in front of the
girl's house. Fascinated by the music, the girl rushed out blindly, stumbled and fell to
her death. In the Mora jataka it was the female voice, and here it was the male voice that
brought about suffering and death.
No one can deny that what we hear is impermanent. Everything that we
hear vanishes instantly, yet we enjoy songs and music because of their apparent
continuity. If we note every sound, "hearing, hearing" mentally, our realization
of their impermanence makes it impossible for our pleasant feelings to become cravings.
This means non-arising of upadana and all its resultant suffering.
Smell is seldom experienced by the yogi. He must, of course, note it
and see that it does not give rise to craving.
Mindfulness is especially important in eating. The unmindful person
delights in eating good food. He is fond of such pleasure; he craves for it in future and
hereafter. This craving for good food and drinks is powerful. It may lead to an existence
that makes a person subsist on bad food. Thus, according to the Balapandita sutta, those
who do misdeeds for the pleasure of good food are reborn as animals that eat grass, leaves
or human excreta.
Eating bad food also tends to create the desire for good food.
Therefore, it is necessary for the yogi to note everything, every movement of his hand and
mouth and every sensation when he is eating. Through this practice of mindfulness he
becomes aware of the vanishing of his actions, sensations and feeling. In this way he
gains an insight into impermanence of everything, an insight that leads to the extinction
of craving and its attendant suffering.
Thoughts And Tactile Impressions
Tactile impression is always present all over the physical body.
Thinking, too, is also present all the time except when the yogi goes to sleep. So
thoughts and tactile impressions form the objects of vipassana practice for most of the
time. The yogi contemplates the tactile impressions when he has nothing else to engage his
attention.
He notes his thoughts even though they happen to be unpleasant and
undesirable. The beginner in meditation is often subject to such distractions, but they
usually disappear as he gains practice and develops concentration. Thoughts about the
Dhamma occur to some yogis from time to time and these should be noted. Introspection of
these thoughts also ensures insight into impermanence and the extinction of suffering.
Here, some may wonder what this description of vipassana practice has
to do with the discourse on Paticcasamuppada. The doctrine points out the chain of
consequences as conditioned by their respective causes and our object is to show the way
to the end of samsaric suffering that finally results from the interplay of their causes
and consequences. So we have to describe the practice wherever it is relevant. Thus, when
it is said that "avijja leads to sankhara and sankhara to rebirth", we have to
show the way to remove avijja. So also in connection with vinnana, etc., that finally
bring about dukkha, it is necessary to stress the need for removing the link between
vedana and tanha, that is the main cause of dukkha.
Three Kinds Of Craving (Tanha)
If feeling (vedana) that arises from contact with sense-objects is not
rightly contemplated, it leads to one of the three kinds of craving viz., craving for
sensual pleasure, craving for existence and craving for non-existence.
The first kind of craving (kamatanha) is focused on sensual objects and
it is most prevalent among the living beings of the sensual world.
The craving for existence (bhavatanha) is bound up with the
eternity-belief (sassata-ditthi). It presupposes the permanence of a living being and the
indestructibility of the ego despite the dissolution of the physical body. The belief is
not deep-rooted among the Buddhists, but non-Buddhists hold it so firmly that it is a
major impediment to their spiritual liberation. Their craving for existence is evident in
their illusion of permanent self and their love of sensual pleasure.
The craving for non-existence (vibhavatanha) is born of the
annihilation belief (uccheda-ditthi). The belief is not found among Buddhists and no one
is a true Buddhist if he or she holds the belief. The craving for non-existence means the
desire for the automatic cessation of the life-stream after death as well as the love of
pleasure rooted in the materialistic view of life.
Each of these three cravings stems from the failure to realize anicca,
dukkha and anatta through the introspection of feelings. So in order to forestall craving
and its consequences, namely, rebirth and suffering, the yogi should contemplate every
phenomenon, and try to see everything as it really is.
Tanha Causes Upadana
From craving there arises clinging (upadana). The Pali term upadana is
a compound of //upa// - intense, extreme, and //adana// - grasp, take, and so it means to
grasp firmly, or intense, obsessive craving. Clinging is of four kinds: (1) clinging to
sensuous objects, (2) clinging to false views, (3) clinging to irrelevant, non-Ariyan
practices as the way to salvation, and (4) clinging to atta or ego-belief.
(1) Clinging to sensual objects:
Sensual objects excite the desire of all living beings who are not free
from the craving for sensual pleasure. These objects are five in number viz., visual form,
sound, odour, taste and contact.
Visual form is the object that is pleasant and attractive to the eye.
It may possess natural beauty or it may appear to be beautiful in the eyes of the viewer.
Pleasant visual form, whether real or apparent, is to be found in men, women and consumer
goods. It is the physical appearance of females that attracts the males and vice-versa.
The things that both men and women desire are clothes, jewellery, cars, etc. It is not
merely the form or colour that excites desire. Man and woman are drawn towards each other
not only by the complexion but by the whole body of the opposite sex, and the same may be
said of consumer goods that make people greedy. Form or colour only serves to introduce or
identify the object of desire just as the cry of an animal helps the hunter to track and
find it out.
Sound as the object of sensual pleasure is represented by the voices of
men and women, songs or music. Some sounds and voices are really sweet while some only
appear to be sweet in our ears. Again, it is not the mere sound that attracts us for when
we delight in hearing a sound or a voice, the whole thing or the being that produces it
forms the focus of our attachment.
Odour as the source of sensual pleasure comprises all kinds of scents:
scent of flavours, powder, fragrant essence. Men and women apply these odoriferous
substances to their bodies and delight in these scents, and it is not the scents alone but
the whole physical body giving out the scent that attracts people.
The sensual pleasure that we have by eating or drinking is rooted in
food and drinks. The good or pleasant taste may be real or apparent. For pigs, dogs and
other animals, garbage, refuse and filth may be a source of sensual pleasure. Some people
are very fond of bitter or spicy food. Some like intoxicants. Their pleasure is more
apparent than real since normal ordinary people do not share their tastes. The pleasure of
eating is not confined to food; it centres also on the preparation of food and the man or
woman who prepares it. This is evident in the pleasure of a man who enjoys eating the food
prepared by his wife although her culinary skill may not impress other people.
Another source of sensual pleasure is the body or tactile impression.
Soft and smooth beds, comfortable clothing, something warm in cold season and something
cold in hot season, the body of the opposite sex - all these form the objects of contact
that create not only the craving for the tactile impression but also the craving for the
whole body of the living or non-living object. The tactile impression only serves to pave
the way for attachment to the whole body.
Bases Of Sensual Pleasure
Then there are living and non-living objects that form the sources of
sensual pleasure. There are gold, silver, jewellery, rice, cattle, poultry, vehicles,
houses, land, attendants. Men work daily to secure these sources of pleasure. They seek
these things to have good food, good clothes and good houses, to see movies and so forth.
Sensual desire (tanha) usually leads to intense craving for sensual
objects (kamapadana). When a man starts smoking, he delights in his new habit but as the
habit grows upon him he becomes addicted to it. Thus, we become excessively fond of
certain objects and we feel restless and discomfited if we do not get them. In this way
tanha develops into upadana (clinging, grasping or infatuation).
Upadana cannot come into being without tanha. The music and songs of
foreigners do not appeal to Burmese ears and so there is no craze for them among the
people. Burmese people do not eat dogs. Dog's flesh is abhorrent to them and so there can
be no upadana in regard to it.
(2) Ditthupadana (Bigotry)
Another kind of upadana is ditthupadana which means clinging to false
views. It covers all the false views, exclusive of those in the categories of the third
and fourth upadana. So every false belief is to be regarded as upadana. Here we will
describe at length ten false views that have a firm grip on the people.
The first view is that alms-giving is not a good kammic act, that it
means only a waste of money. This view rejects the sense of values and the fruits of a
good act. It has, however, no basis in fact. The act of dana makes the donor joyful. It
benefits the recipient physically and mentally and it may even help to save the life of a
starving man. The donor is popular and highly esteemed. After his death, he attains the
deva-world. It is hard to convince the sceptic of this post-mortem reward, but these
other-worldly results of kamma come within the purview of Arahats and other holy men with
psychic powers. One of these powers is the ability to see with the divine eye
(dibbacakkhu). This psychic power enables one to see donors prospering in deva-worlds or
evil-doing non-donors suffering in the lower worlds. Such vision can be had even by some
yogis who have not acquired psychic powers but developed much samadhi. Again some may
dismiss these visions as figments of imagination but the agreement of these accounts about
the other worlds lends weight to their credibility.
The second false view is also a negation of the kammic benefits for
alms-giving on a grand scale.
The third false view rejects the kammic benefits of feeding guests,
giving gifts on new year day and so forth. This view is essentially the same as the third
view. It refers to small acts of dana that were in vogue in ancient India but were
dismissed as futile by heretics.
The fourth view denies the kammic result of any morally good or evil
act. There is a lot of evidence for the kammic effects of a man's acts in this life, and,
as for the other-worldly result of an act, those with psychic power can testify to it. But
people who are excessively fond of sensual pleasure like to give free rein to their
desires. They frown on moral values and ideas which they regard as a hindrance to their
material progress. So they put forward many arguments to justify their rejection of the
kammic law. In the final analysis all this is due to their excessive love of sensual
pleasure.
The fifth and sixth view deny any respect, honour or support that we
owe to our parents for all their loving care in our childhood. It is said that a man and
his wife get children through sexual intercourse by accident, that they bring up the
children from a sense of responsibility, and so there is no reason why children should be
grateful to their parents. So it is not a good deed on the part of a man to look after his
parents nor is it an evil to wrong them. It is a terrible view; those who hold it will not
be respected by their children.
The seventh view denies the existence of any world other than the human
and the animal worlds. It also rejects the belief that an animal may be reborn as a human
being.
The eighth view denies rebirth of a human being in deva or animal
worlds or in hell. It preaches annihilation of life after death.
The ninth view denies rebirth by //opapatika// or spontaneous
generation. In other words, it denies the existence of devas, brahmas, petas, asuras,
etc., who appear with their full-fledged bodies without being conceived in the womb. This
view is untenable since encounters with good or evil spirits are reported from all over
the world; there are mediums and witch-doctors who can invoke spirits; and devas, Brahmas,
etc., are sometimes visible to the yogis who practise vipassana.
The last view is that there is no ascetic or Brahman who speaks of this
world and the other invisible world and who conforms to his teaching. The view implies
that there is no person who can speak independently of this world and the other world on
the basis of his actual extraordinary experience, that all their teaching is guesswork and
speculation, and so false and evil.
Today this view is echoed by those who scoff at religion. They reject
the existence of Buddhas and Arahats who know the world as it really is through their own
effort. But the logic underlying this view is self-defeating for by the same kind of
reasoning, one can reject the view since those who hold it also do not know anything about
this or the other world really.
As for the Buddha-dhamma, it rests on extraordinary insight (Sayain
abhinna desita). As such it leads itself to empirical investigation and there is much
scientific evidence for it.
The man who preached the Indian brand of agnosticism in the time of the
Buddha was Ajita. He attacked all religious teaching without qualification and so it is to
be assumed that the arahats and the Buddha, too, were the targets of his denunciation.
Right Views
All these ten wrong views boil down to the denial of the law of kamma
for the rejection of kamma means rejection of any benefit accruing from the acts of dana
and reference to parents, and other good deeds, as well as the kammic potential for
arahatship or Buddhahood. Likewise, the ten right views mentioned below are based on the
belief in kamma, or moral retribution.
(1) The first view is that dana is beneficial. One who gives alms is
admired at least by the recipients. They will respect him, praise him and help him when he
is in trouble. He dies calmly with good death-bed visions and after his death he attains
good rebirth in deva-worlds or in human society. His good rebirth may finally lead to the
Ariyan path and Nibbana. It was usually with an act of dana that the bodhisatta, and
others embarked on their long spiritual journey leading to the goal of Buddhahood,
paccekabuddhahood or arahatship.
The kammic effect of alms-giving is also evident in the material
prosperity of some people. Some people do the same job such as business, farming, etc.,
but differ in their accomplishments. Some become prosperous while others make no progress
materially. Some meet with success without working hard while others fail to prosper
despite their hard work. Other things being equal, this disparity in the fortunes of some
persons is no doubt due to dana or lack of dana in a previous life.
(2) and (3) The man who believes in the law of kamma will have no doubt
about the kammic potency of giving alms lavishly or the small acts of dana such as feeding
the guests, giving presents and so forth.
(4) These three right views are implicit in the law of kamma or moral
retribution. That a man fares according to his good or bad deeds is an undeniable fact of
life. A man who leads a good life in accordance with the instruction of his parents and
teachers is popular, gets help from others and achieves success, and when he grows up he
becomes a prosperous gentleman. Similarly, because of good kamma in a previous life a man
may be born of a good family and blessed with health, wealth, physical beauty and sincere
friends. The bad effect of evil kamma such as ill-health, poverty, ugliness, etc., are
equally well-known to everybody.
(5) and (6) The belief in kamma also implies a recognition of our deep
gratitude to parents. Parents take care of their children from the time of their
conception. The mother is especially careful about her health, her food, and movements for
the sake of the child in her womb. If she is a good Buddhist, she keeps sabbath and
contemplates the Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha in the hope of influencing her child
spiritually. After the birth of the child, the parents have to attend to his physical
needs and educate him, and when he comes of age they have to give him financial support
for a start in life. For these reasons, it is our bounden duty to revere and care for our
parents; and this is a kammic act that benefits us immensely. At the very least, a man who
respects his parents will be respected by his children while a man who wrongs his parents
is very likely to be disdained by his children.
Seeing The World Beyond
(7), (8) and (9) The right views about the existence of this world, the
invisible world and the living beings such as the devas who come into existence by
spontaneous materialization. These right views are also implicit in the belief in the law
of kamma for the law of kamma makes it possible for a living being from the animal or deva
world to pass on to human world or vice-versa according to his kamma after death. This can
be demonstrated to a certain extent but the observer will have to possess psychic powers,
vipassana insight or the ability to think rationally.
Through the practice of samathajhana, a yogi can acquire the power of
recalling the past lives; he can have the divine-eye (dibbacakkhu) that affords him a
glimpse into the physical appearance, etc., of a person who has passed on to a new
existence. This psychic power is also accessible to those who practise vipassana.
Those who cannot practise samatha or vipassana will have to depend on
their power of reasoning. There are certain persons here and there who can recall their
previous lives, people who are credited with jatissaranana in Buddhist literature. They
describe their past lives as human beings, animals, spirits or ghosts. To the rational
mind, these accounts clearly point to the post-mortem transition from this world to the
other world and vice-versa as well as to the instant materialization of certain beings.
Here we wish to mention the way of thinking on the issue of a future
life suggested by wise men. Suppose a man accepts the belief in kamma and life after death
while another man rejects the belief. The second man will not do good deeds such as dana,
sila and he will not avoid doing evil. He will give free rein to his desires. Therefore,
he has no virtue that is worthy of respect and admiration by other people. If contrary to
his belief, the law of kamma and a future life are real, he is bound to land in the lower
worlds immediately after his death and suffer for many lifetimes throughout his samsaric
existence.
On the other hand, the man who believes in kamma and after-life will
avoid evil, do good and so, even if there is no kamma or a future life, he will be
extolled and well-known for his good character. He will rejoice at the contemplation of
his good deeds. As a good citizen, he will lead a peaceful life. These are the benefits
that will certainly accrue to him from his belief in kamma in the present life. And if
life after death is indeed a fact, he is assured of happiness hereafter. So it is
reasonable to accept the belief in after-life since it serves our interests now or in
future in any event. This is the infallible way of thinking that the Buddha recommends in
Apannaka sutta of Majjhima nikaya.
Parami And Kamma
(10) Faith in the Buddha, the Arahats or holy men who can claim
transcendent knowledge about this and the other worlds and who possess a noble character
that lends credence to their teachings - such faith also presupposes the belief in kamma,
for the spiritual attainment of Arahats and the Buddha rests in part on their parami
(perfection) which does not differ essentially from kamma. Development of parami is a kind
of learning. Just as a child has to learn many things in order to become well-educated, so
also a bodhisatta has to seek knowledge and train himself for the attainment of his goal.
Some parents and elders take their children to movies and theatres
while others take theirs to pagodas and monasteries. In this way the children acquire good
or bad habits and develop a craving for sensual pleasure or a taste for the higher things
of life. Good habits and good training may be called a kind of parami. Some children are
spontaneously inclined to religious life, some men and women have immense zeal and energy
for the practice of vipassana. Such a child's unusual interest in religion or a man's
unusual love of spiritual life is born of the parami in a previous life.
Prince Siddhattha became the Buddha through the gradual development and
perfection of parami such as dana, sila, nekkhama (renunciation) and so forth over aeons
spanning innumerable lifetimes. It was not a matter of easy accomplishment in a single
existence. It was this cumulative kammic potential or parami that helped to strengthen his
will when he left his family and the luxuries of his royal palace in search of
enlightenment. Today, some people speak of their disillusionment with life but it is hard
for a man to renounce all his wealth and become a monk, let alone to think of the kind of
renunciation that distinguished the bodhisatta.
The bodhisatta cultivated other paramis, too, for the sake of wisdom,
at energy fortitude and so forth in way of his previous lives. As a result in his last
existence he reflected and realized independently the nature of life, its dependent
origination, etc. It was his kammic potential (parami) that finally led to his supreme
enlightenment and likewise it was the parami that contributed to the spiritual attainments
of Paccekabuddhas and Arahats. Hence, the belief in kamma makes it possible for the
spiritual aspirant to become the arahat, Paccekabuddha or the Buddha and one who accepts
the belief has no doubt about the transcendent knowledge of the Buddha and other holy men.
In short, ditthupadana is generally synonymous with rejection of the
law of kamma. It was not widespread in the time of the Buddha or even about a hundred
years ago but now it is gaining ground, thanks to the books that have criticized the
doctrine of kamma in the name of scientific knowledge. As the scriptures say, false
beliefs are usually rooted in craving and with man's increasing hunger for material goods,
scepticism about kamma is likely to become dominant and it is up to good people to guard
themselves against it.
Apart from the rejection of kamma, ditthupadana also means strong
attachment to all false beliefs e.g. ego-belief, annihilation-belief, etc. The exceptions
are the two false beliefs covered by silabbatupadana and attavadupadana.
(3) Silabbatupadana (Clinging To False Practices)
Silabbatupadana is clinging to wrong practices that do not lead to
cessation of suffering. It is the view which identifies the habits of cows, dogs and other
animals with the way to the end of dukkha. It found expression among some ascetics in the
time of the Buddha. Like animals, they lived naked, ate, defecated and went about on all
fours, and slept on the ground. They believed that such a way of life served to purge them
of all evil kamma and forestall new kammic action, thereby assuring them of an end to
suffering and eternal bliss after death.
To a Buddhist, this kind of belief may sound incredible but some
people's preferences are very odd and they differ in their views and inclinations. So
there came to the Buddha two ascetics, one Punna who lived like an ox and another Seniya
who lived like a dog. They asked the Lord about the benefits of their practice. The Lord
was reluctant to answer but when pressed for his view, he replied that an ascetic who
committed himself wholly to the habits of an ox or a dog would be reborn as an ox or a dog
after death; that it was wrong to believe that such practices led to the deva-world; and
that one who held a wrong belief was likely to land in hell or in the animal world. Then
the Buddha went on to describe (1) the evil practices that bear evil fruits, (2) the good
practices that bear good fruits, (3) the evil practices mixed with good practices and (4)
the practice of the Ariyan path that leads to the total extinction of good and bad kammas.
On hearing this sermon Punna became the disciple of the Buddha. Seniya
joined the order and attained Arahatship through the practice of the Dhamma.
The Story Of Korakhattiya
In the time of the Buddha there was a man named Korakhattiya who lived
like a dog. One day the Buddha passed by him, accompanied by a Licchavi bhikkhu,
Sunakkhatta by name.
Sunakkhatta saw the ascetic moving on all fours and eating the food on
the ground without the help of his hands. The ascetic's way of life gave the monk the
impression of a holy man, nay, an Arahat who had few desires. In point of fact, the
ascetic's mode of life was a kind of silabbatupadana that would lead him to one of the
four lower worlds. It was abhorrent to those who had high ideals and aspirations. It had
appeal for Sunakkhatta only because of his low tastes and desires. The Licchavi monk was
exceptional in this respect. There were then not as now many people who preferred false
views and false practices that did not accord with the Buddha's teaching. This was
probably a hangover from wrong attachments in their previous lives.
The Buddha divined Sunakkhatta's thoughts and said, "So you regard
that ascetic as an Arahat! I wonder why you do not feel ashamed of being called the
disciple of the Buddha." The monk then accused the Lord of envying the ascetic's
Arahatship. This is of course the kind of retort that is to be expected from an ignorant
man when someone speaks the truth about his false teacher. The Buddha explained that his
object was to remove the monk's illusions that would do him no good. Then he went on to
predict that after seven days the ascetic would die of indigestion and land in the lowest
Asura world; that his body would be dumped in a certain cemetery; that if the monk went
there and asked about his present abode, the dead body would reveal it.
The Buddha made this prophecy in order to restore Sunakkhatta's faith
in him. Through the practice of samatha Sunakkhatta had attained jhana and divine eye.
With his divine eye he had seen the gods and goddesses and as he wished to hear their
voices he asked the Buddha about the way to the attainment of divine ear. But the Lord
declined to fulfil his desire because his bad kamma stood in the way and he would blame
the Lord for the non-attainment of divine ear. Nevertheless, he lost his faith in the Lord
because he thought that it was envy that motivated the Lord to refuse his request. So the
Buddha predicted the ascetic's fate to impress Sunakkhatta and salvage his faith.
Sunakkhatta informed the ascetic of the Lord's prediction and warned
him against overeating. The ascetic fasted for six days but on the seventh day he could
not resist the temptation any longer. He wolfed down the food provided by a lay follower
and died of indigestion that very night.
His fellow ascetics dragged his dead body to dump it in any place other
than the cemetery specified in the Buddha's prediction. They got to a cemetery but found
it to be the very place they wished to avoid for it had the kind of grass predicted by the
Buddha. They tried to drag the body away but the creeper-rope snapped and all their
efforts to remove it were in vain. So they had to abandon the corpse there.
Sunakkhatta heard the news but still he hoped to prove the falsity of
the latter part of the Lord's prediction. He went to the cemetery and rapping the dead man
asked about his abode. The corpse arose and after saying that he was in Kalakamjika asura
abode fell back on the ground. Kalakamjika is the lowest asura abode. Asura is a kind of
peta with a monstrous body and a mouth which is so small that it cannot drink and eat
well.
According to the commentary, it was the Buddha's psychic power that
made the dead body possessed by the asura peta. Given the ability of some sorcerers to
raise the dead, there is no need to have any doubt about the resurrection of the dead
ascetic through the psychic power (iddhi) of the Buddha.
Sunakkhatta came back crestfallen and had to admit that the Lord's
prophecy had come wholly true. Even so, he did not have complete faith in the Buddha.
Later on he left the holy order and disparaged the Lord.
Other Silabbata Practices
Besides the mode of life of cows and dogs there are other practices
that can be described as silabbata. Some people emulate the elephants, horses, and so
forth. In other words, they worship animals. The commentary refers to king-worshippers
which may mean in Burma people who worship various nats. Nat-worship among Burmese people
is not motivated by the desire for liberation from samsara (life cycle). It stems from the
hope for material benefits here and now and as such it does not fall within the scope of
silabbatupadana, but it is upadana over the belief that leads some people to make animal
sacrifice in their worship of the nats.
There are also fire-worship, naga-worship, moon-worship, sun-worship,
spirit-worship and so forth. If the object in any kind of worship is to have happiness or
spiritual liberation after death, it is silabbatupadana. In short, all practices divorced
from the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path are labelled silabbata and
attachment to them as the way to salvation is silabbatupadana.
The yogi who has attained at least the sotapanna stage through the
contemplation of nama-rupa is well aware of the right path to Nibbana and so he has freed
himself from the belief in silabbata. He knows empirically that the way to the end of
suffering is only through the introspection of nama-rupa and the practice of the Noble
Eightfold Path.
For example, if you know from experience how to go from this meditation
centre to Shwedagon pagoda, you will not be misled by anyone who points out the wrong way.
Likewise, the yogi at the sotapanna stage knows the right way to Nibbana and so he has no
illusion about the beliefs and practices such as belief in God, nat worship or asceticism
that pass for the way to salvation.
Those who do not know the right path are not free from such illusion.
They may have acquired it from their ignorant parents, teachers or friends; or because of
their poor basic knowledge, they might have been misguided by books that advocate false
beliefs and practices. The ordinary man (puthujjana) is ignorant of the right path to
Nibbana and so he will have to reckon with many teachers and practices through his
samsaric existence. If he falls for a false teacher or a false practice, he is in for a
lot of suffering. Thus the practice of austerities will only cause hardships and pain and
the performance of animal sacrifice will certainly lead to the lower worlds.
It is also upadana over silabbata to believe that rupajhana or
arupajhana means complete salvation. In short, even the moral perfection or jhanic
attainment in the mundane sphere, though commendable, may lead to silabbatupadana if it is
divorced from the holy path of vipassana and regarded as the total liberation. Udaka sutta
of Samyutta nikaya refers to the rishi Udaka, who having attained the arupa world through
his arupajhana declared that he had uprooted the cause of dukkha and made an end of it.
This was also the illusion of another rishi called Alara. This illusion or upadana led to
their good kamma which in turn led to their rebirth in the arupa worlds.
So in his discourse to Baka brahma, the Buddha says: "I see the
dangers of birth, old age, death, etc., inherent in the three worlds of sensuality, rupa
and arupa. I see those who seek Nibbana still bound to existence. So I do not approve of
any kind of existence. I have repudiated all attachment to existence."
Like the two rishis, those who do not know the Buddha's teaching never
attain their goal. Although they seek permanent happiness, they follow the wrong path of
silabbata and remain entangled in the samsaric existence of dukkha. So we can hardly
over-emphasize the importance of right effort on the right path as pointed out by the
Buddha.
(4) Attavadupadana (Clinging To Belief In Soul)
Attavadupadana is a compound of attavada and upadana. Attavada means
belief in soul entity and attavadupadana is attachment to the view that every person is a
living soul.
Attachment to the ego-belief is of two kinds, viz., ordinary attachment
and deep-rooted attachment. Ordinary attachment that prevails among ignorant Buddhists is
not harmful to progress on the holy path. The belief is not deeply entrenched because
Buddhists accept the Buddha's teaching which denies the permanent soul and recognizes
nama-rupa as the only reality behind a living being. Intelligent Buddhists are still less
vulnerable to the belief. For they know that seeing, hearing, etc., involve only the
sense-organs (eye, ear, etc.), the corresponding sense-objects (visual form, sound, etc.)
and the corresponding states of consciousness.
But most people are not wholly free from the ego-belief. Even the yogi
who practises vipassana may at times fall for it and it is likely to attract every man who
has not attained the holy path.
In fact those who taught ego-belief described the ego as the owner of
the five khandhas, as an independent entity, possessing free-will and self-determination.
It was this view of atta (soul) that the Buddha questioned in his dialogue with the
wandering ascetic Saccaka. Said the Buddha, "You say that this physical body is your
atta. Then can you always keep it well, free from anything unpleasant?" Saccaka had
to answer in the negative. Further questioning by the Lord elicited from him the reply
that he had in fact no control over any of the five khandhas.
So the ancient Buddhist teachers translate "rupam anatta" as
"the physical body is subject to no control", etc. In fact it is the denial of
the "samiatta" or the false view of atta as a controlling entity. Every ordinary
person holds this view and believes in free-will. He can overcome it completely only
through vipassana contemplation.
The attavada teachers also say that atta exists permanently in the
physical body. In other words, it means the personal identity that is said to persist
through the whole existence.
Again, they say that atta is the subject of all actions, thus
identifying it with sankharakkhandha. It is the illusion that creates the belief: "It
is I that see, hear, etc."
They also say that atta is the living entity that feels; that it is
atta that is happy or unhappy. In other words, they describe atta or soul in terms of
vedana or feeling.
Thus, although the Atmanists (attavadi) insist that atta has nothing to
do with the five khandhas, they credit it with ownership of the body, etc., permanent
residence in the body, subjectivity and feeling: and, hence, in effect they identify it
with the five khandhas. The ego-illusion is rooted in the khandhas and a man can free
himself completely from it only when he becomes aware of the real nature of khandhas
through contemplation.
Of the four upadana, the first upadana (clinging to sensuality) is the
developed form of craving (tanha). The other three upadanas differ only as regards their
objects; basically they all relate to beliefs, viz., belief in ego, belief in the efficacy
of practices other than those of the Eightfold Path, and any false belief other than those
in the category of the other two upadana. All false beliefs arise in connection with
craving. Men cling to a belief because they like it. Thus there is no doubt that all the
four upadanas stem from craving and hence the Buddha's teaching: "From tanha there
arises upadana."
In point of fact, craving is the cause and clinging is the effect.
Craving for sensual pleasure, ego-belief, or practices irrelevant to the holy path or
other false beliefs is the cause, and this craving develops into clinging to sensuality,
ego-belief, etc., and thus becomes effects.